사용자:Aspere/도살장으로 끌려가는 어린 양처럼

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.

도살장으로 끌려가는 어린 양처럼(공동번역성서), 도수장으로 끌려 가는 어린 양과 같이(개역개정판), 도살장에 끌려가는 어린양처럼(천주교 새번역 성경)은 성경의 이사야서에 등장하는 순교와 관련한 문구로, 홀로코스트 당시 별다른 저항 없이 죽음을 맞이한 유대인을 가리키는 문장으로 사용한다. 이 문구는 1903년 키시뇨프 포그롬 이후 유대교 단체에서 사용하기 시작해, 시온주의와 연관지어졌으며, 홀로코스트 당시 아바 코브너 등 유대인 저항 세력은 이 문구를 통해 유대인들에게 맞서 싸우자고 주장하기도 하였다. 종전 후 이스라엘에서는 무장 저항 세력을 높게 평가하며, 홀로코스트 생존자들을 '어린 양처럼' 갔다고 비판하기도 하였는데, 이는 유대인들이 자신의 목숨을 지키려고 하지 않았기 때문에 스스로의 고통과 죽음에 어느 정도 책임이 있다는 것으로, 피해자 비난의 일종이라고 지속적으로 비판받고 있다.

배경[편집]

종교적 배경[편집]

<nowiki /> 이사야 53장 및 시편 44편 문서에 이 부분의 추가 정보가 있습니다.

이사야 53장 7절에는 저항하지 않고 살해되는 종에 대한 내용이 나와 있다.[1][2]

그는 온갖 굴욕을 받으면서도 입 한번 열지 않고 참았다. 도살장으로 끌려가는 어린 양처럼 가만히 서서 털을 깎이는 어미 양처럼 결코 입을 열지 않았다. (공동번역성서)
그가 곤욕을 당하여 괴로울 때에도 그의 입을 열지 아니하였음이여 마치 도수장으로 끌려 가는 어린 양과 털 깎는 자 앞에서 잠잠한 양 같이 그의 입을 열지 아니하였도다 (개역개정판)
학대받고 천대받았지만 그는 자기 입을 열지 않았다. 도살장에 끌려가는 어린양처럼 털 깎는 사람 앞에 잠자코 서 있는 어미 양처럼 그는 자기 입을 열지 않았다. (천주교 새번역 성경)

또한, 시편 44편 22절에서는 박해받는 유대인들의 순교가 제시되어 있다.[3][4]

당신 때문에 우리가 날마다 죽임을 당하며 도살장의 양처럼 찢기는 신세가 되었습니다. (공동번역성서)
우리가 종일 주를 위하여 죽임을 당하게 되며 도살할 양 같이 여김을 받았나이다 (개역개정판)
그러나 저희는 온종일 당신 때문에 살해되며 도살될 양처럼 여겨집니다. (천주교 새번역 성경)

유대교 의례에서는 시편 44편에서 유래한 타하눈의 기도문을 매 주 월요일과 목요일 아침에 암송한다.

하늘에서 바라보셔서, 우리가 온 민족 사이에서 경멸과 조롱의 대상이 되었음을 알아 주십시오. 우리는 죽고, 파괴되고, 얻어맞고, 수치를 당할, 도살장으로 끌려가는 양처럼 여겨집니다. 하지만 이에도 불구하고 우리는 당신의 이름을 잊지 않았습니다—우리를 잊지 마시기를 간청합니다.[5]

기독교에서는 이 문구를 예수의 십자가형을 나타낸 것으로, 예수가 하느님의 어린 양으로서 상징화되는 것으로 본다. Presbyterian theologian Albert Barnes wrote, "the fact that [Jesus] did not open his mouth in complaint was therefore the more remarkable, and made the merit of his sufferings the greater". He considered Isaiah 53 prophetic typology that had been "fulfilled in the life of the Lord Jesus", a typology that would continue as part of Christian interpretations of the Holocaust.[6]

The Hebrew phrase in the Bible, "like sheep to be slaughtered" (כְּצֹאן טִבְחָה, ke-tson le-tivhah), is distinct from the later variant "like sheep to (the) slaughter" (כצאן לטבח, ke-tson la-tevah).[7]

Secular[편집]

The inverse of the phrase, contrary to what was previously believed, was coined by the writer of the 10th-century Jewish history Josippon, which quoted Mattathias, a leader of the Maccabean Revolt, as saying, "Be strong and let us be strengthened and let us die fighting and not die as sheep led to slaughter".[8][9] In a different context, the phrase was used by United States founder George Washington in 1783 to warn of the dangers of removing the right to freedom of speech: "the freedom of speech may be taken away, and dumb and silent we may be led, like sheep, to the Slaughter".[10][11]

The inversion of the phrase was revived by Jewish self-defense leagues in the Russian Empire in the wake of the 1903 Kishinev pogrom, although it remained rare compared to other imagery of victimization.[12] In reference to the pogrom, the New York Times reported that "The Jews were taken wholly unaware and slaughtered like sheep".[13] Yosef Haim Brenner's Hebrew novella Around the Point featured a protagonist who asked, "Were the Jews like sheep to be slaughtered?" but immediately rejected the idea. By 1910, the second version of the phrase, invented in Josippon, was more commonly used.[14] In a 1920 article titled "Will They Make Jerusalem into a Kishinev?" Zalman Shazar, later the third president of Israel, argued against negotiating with the British Mandatory Palestine authorities because "The brothers of the Tel Hai heroes will not be led as sheep to slaughter."[15]

In Yizkor, a 1911 book memorializing Jews killed by Arabs, the inverse was attributed to Ya'akov Plotkin, the leader of a Jewish self-defense organization in Ukraine, who had immigrated to Palestine and was killed during the intercommunal conflict in Palestine. According to Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, later Israel's second president, Plotkin had previously used the phrase in regard to defense against the pogroms in the Russian Empire. The book was widely read by Zionists in Eastern Europe. Yael Feldman suggests that this is the probable source for the verbiage Abba Kovner used in his declaration of 1 January 1942.[16]

In the Holocaust context[편집]

During the Holocaust[편집]

<nowiki /> Jewish resistance during the Holocaust 문서에 이 부분의 추가 정보가 있습니다.

During the Holocaust, Abba Kovner was the first to use the phrase as a call for action in a 1 January 1942 pamphlet[10] in which he argued that "Hitler is plotting the annihilation of European Jewry".[9] Kovner urged Jews in the Vilna Ghetto to resist the Germans:[10][17]

We will not be led like sheep to slaughter. True we are weak and helpless, but the only response to the murders is revolt. Brethren, it is better to die fighting like free men than to live at the mercy of the murderers. Arise, Arise with last breath.

— Abba Kovner, Let us not go like sheep to the slaughter!(히브리어판)

Instead of viewing Jews as sheep, Kovner instead attempted "to cause a rebellion against the very use of that term", according to Holocaust historian Yehuda Bauer.[18][19] In a speech Kovner gave to members of the Palmach after arriving in Israel in October 1945, he explained that his phrase had not meant that Holocaust victims had gone "like sheep to the slaughter" and attributed that interpretation to non-Jews, such as a Soviet partisan commissar. Kovner also said of the inability of so many victims to fight back, "All and everyone did go like this!", including Soviet prisoners of war, Nazi collaborators killed by their former allies, and Polish officers.[20]

The pamphlet was smuggled to other ghettos, where it inspired similar calls for resistance.[21] In the Kraków Ghetto, Dolek Liebeskind said, "For three lines in history that will be written about the youth who fought and did not go like sheep to the slaughter it is even worth dying."[21] During the Grossaktion Warsaw, the mass deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto beginning 22 July 1942, Jewish archivist Emanuel Ringelblum criticized the brutality of the Jewish Ghetto Police during roundups and the Jewish masses' passivity. Ringelblum asked, "why have we allowed ourselves to be led like sheep to the slaughter", and concluded that Jews were ashamed and disgraced because their "docility" did not save their lives. He concluded that the only option was armed resistance, even as a symbolic gesture.[22]

After the war[편집]

In Israel[편집]

In the immediate postwar period in Israel, before the Eichmann trial, survivors who had not fought with the partisans were stigmatized for having allegedly gone like sheep to the slaughter.[23][24] In response, some child survivors pretended to be sabras (native Israelis), and other survivors never mentioned their experience.[25] Armed resistance was glorified, partly because the establishment of the State of Israel also required armed conflict.[26] For example, the most popular textbook for elementary school students devoted 60% of its Holocaust coverage to the Warsaw Ghetto uprising.[27] In contrast, other reactions to the Holocaust were demonized:[26] one textbook approved by the Ministry of Education read that "the heroic stand of the Ghetto Jews also compensated for the humiliating surrender of those led to the death camps" and that Holocaust victims had gone "as sheep to the slaughter".[27]

British historian Tom Lawson argues that the idea of Jewish passivity during the Holocaust confirmed stereotypes of diaspora Jews held by the Yishuv, the Jewish community in Palestine, which contributed to their ascendance.[28] Israeli historian Yechiam Weitz argues that the "sheep to slaughter" trope "insinuat[es] that millions of Jews who perished in the Holocaust did not measure up" and, if they had fought back, Jewish national honor would have been preserved.[29] Israeli historian Idit Zertal writes that Holocaust survivors were blamed for not choosing Zionism in time.[29]

Israeli historian Hanna Yablonka criticizes this perception, arguing that Holocaust survivors shaped Israeli memory.[29] Feldman describes the myth as deriving from traditional European antisemitic stereotypes of Jews as "the dishonorable antithesis of all the 'virile' qualities deemed necessary by modern nationalism".[30] An alternate explanation advanced by Israeli historian Tom Segev is that the sheep metaphor enabled Israelis to downplay the suffering of Jews during the Holocaust as a defense mechanism against cultural trauma.[31] Initially, little was known about the Holocaust, leading to over-generalization.[26] According to the just world hypothesis, Holocaust victims and survivors must have done something to deserve their fate.[32]

Kovner's speech of October 1945 was not available to the public for four decades, and many falsely attributed the accusation against Israeli Holocaust survivors to him.[33] Disturbed by this, Kovner said in 1947 that one who had not witnessed the events of the Holocaust could not use the phrase appropriately; "like sheep to the slaughter" meant something different in Israel than it had in the Vilna Ghetto in 1942.[34] Meanwhile, he continued to claim authorship of the inversion of the statement despite the previous precedent.[33]

The Israeli attitude toward Holocaust survivors was revolutionized by the highly publicized trial of Adolf Eichmann, a key Holocaust perpetrator, in Jerusalem. During the trial, prosecutor Gideon Hausner went beyond proving Eichmann's guilt.[35] He attempted to educate Israelis about Nazi crimes,[36] "assumed the role of defense attorney for the dead and the living Jewish people", and called many survivors as witnesses.[35] The public questioned whether resistance was an option for the masses, and the activity of rescue groups such as the Aid and Rescue Committee was viewed more favorably. Public opinion shifted to blaming the perpetrators exclusively. Revisionist Zionist poet Uri Zvi Greenberg said, "It is a crime to say that, in the time of Hitler, Diaspora Jewry could have gone to their deaths differently." The Labor Zionist writer Haim Guri wrote:

We should ask forgiveness from countless numbers for having judged them in our hearts... We often generalized categorically and arbitrarily that these poor souls [went to their deaths] "as sheep to the slaughter." Now we know better.[37]

Outside of Israel[편집]

바르샤바 게토의 소년.

After the war, the idea that Jewish Holocaust victims and survivors had been passive was reinforced by photographs of liberated Nazi concentration camps depicting emaciated survivors. Because Nazi propaganda films were often the only source of footage, their use in postwar documentaries supported the idea of Jewish passivity, as did the iconic Warsaw Ghetto boy photograph. The claim that Jewish concentration camp prisoners were more passive than non-Jewish prisoners often obscured historical fact, such as the fact that Jews launched six of the seven uprisings in concentration or death camps.[38]

In 1946, survivor and psychologist Viktor Frankl wrote the bestselling book Man's Search for Meaning, based on his own experiences, in which he claimed that a positive attitude was essential to surviving the camps. Consequently, he implied that those who died had given up. Historians have concluded that there was little connection between attitude and survival.[39] In 1960, Jewish psychoanalyst Bruno Bettelheim claimed that "Like lemmings, [millions] marched themselves to their own death" and that Anne Frank and her family were partly to blame for not owning firearms.[40][17] In his 1961 book The Destruction of the European Jews, historian Raul Hilberg characterized Jewish resistance as an extremely marginal phenomenon. However, he evaluated the resistance solely by the number of Germans killed.[17][41] Instead, he argued that Jews had "speeded the process of destruction" by obedience to German orders conditioned by the passivity of Jewish diaspora culture. In the 1985 edition, Hilberg quoted Ringelblum to support this argument.[42]

Hannah Arendt explicitly rejected the idea that Jewish victims had gone "like sheep to the slaughter", because all victims of Nazi persecution had behaved similarly. She argued that Bettelheim expected that Jews would somehow divine Nazi intentions better than other victims and privately criticized Hilberg for "babbl[ing] about a 'death wish' of the Jews".[43] Although she criticized Israeli prosecutor Gideon Hausner for asking survivors why they had not resisted,[43][44] she also described Jews as obeying Nazi orders with "submissive meekness" and "arriving on time at the transportation points, walking under their own power to the places of execution, digging their own graves, undressing and making neat piles of their clothing, and lying down side by side to be shot", a characterization American Holocaust scholar Deborah Lipstadt found "disturbing". Arendt blamed the Judenrat for collaborating with the Nazis, an assessment not commonly accepted today.[44] Despite her more nuanced portrayal, her arguments in Eichmann in Jerusalem were equated with those of Hilberg and Bettelheim and harshly criticized.[45]

After the first three decades, the trope became less of a driving force in Holocaust historiography, according to Lawson.[28] But Richard Middleton-Kaplan cites the 2010 film The Debt, about a Nazi war criminal who taunts and escapes from his Jewish captors, as a recent example of a work perpetuating the perception that Jews passively acquiesced to their fate, because the Nazi's claims to that effect are not rebutted.[46] 2005년 이스라엘의 가자 지구 철수 당시 철수에 반대하던 거주민 일부는 '도살장으로 끌려가는 어린 양처럼 가지 않을 것이다'고 주장하기도 하였다.[47]

비판[편집]

The phrase became so widespread and widely believed that historians of Jewish resistance during the Holocaust used it as the title of works challenging perceptions of Jewish passivitity.[48] Daniel Goldhagen criticized the "maddening, oft-heard phrase 'like sheep to slaughter'" as a "misconception" in his blurb for the 1994 book Resistance: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. The entry on Jewish resistance in Eastern Europe in the 2001 The Holocaust Encyclopedia opens by debunking the "false assumptions" behind questions such as "Why did the Jews go like sheep to the slaughter?"[49]

Yehuda Bauer has argued that "those who use it are identifying, even unconsciously, with the killers", who denied their victims' humanity.[19] He notes that "Jews were not sheep. Jews were Jews, Jews were human beings" who were murdered, not slaughtered.[18][19] American sociologist Nechama Tec says she is frequently asked "Why did Jews go like sheep to the slaughter?", which she calls "a blatantly false assumption" because the opportunity to resist was not often present, and many Jews employed creative survival strategies. Tec strongly criticizes the idea that "the victims themselves were partly to blame for their own destruction".[17] According to Holocaust historian Peter Hayes, "nothing in the literature on the Shoah is more unseemly than the blame cast by some writers on an almost completely unarmed, isolated, terrified, tortured, and enervated people for allegedly failing to respond adequately".[50]

Survivors including Elie Wiesel and Primo Levi have also criticized the tendency to blame Jews for their plight during the Holocaust, which Wiesel called "The height of irony and cruelty: the dead victims needed to be defended, while the killers, dead and alive, were left alone."[51] Psychologist Eva Fogelman argues that the victim-blaming tendency stems from the desire to "avoid confronting the question: What would I have done? And would I have survived?" According to Fogelman, "Blaming the victims not only distorts history; it also perpetuates their victimization."[52]

Rabbi Emil Fackenheim wrote that "the loose talk about 'sheep to slaughter' and 'collaborationist' Judenräte" is caused by willful ignorance of the facts of the Holocaust because "it is more comfortable to blame the victim".[53] Rabbi Yisrael Rutman argued that the "true meaning" of the phrase is the spiritual strength of Jews who had no opportunity to resist their murder.[11] Rabbi Bernard Rosenberg writes that to understand the fallacy of the "sheep to the slaughter" myth, one must consider the lived experience of survivors who had no opportunity to fight back against their oppressors.[54] Rosenberg argues that survival and the effort to rebuild lives, communities, and the Jewish state after the Holocaust was a form of fighting back, as is preserving Jewish tradition today.[55] Orthodox Rabbi and author Shmuley Boteach calls the phrase a "double insult to the martyred six million" because it both accuses them of cowardice and blames them for their fate.[56]

각주[편집]

  1. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 3–4쪽.
  2. ↑ Cohen & Mendes-Flohr 2010, 369쪽.
  3. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 4쪽.
  4. ↑ Feldman 2013, 147쪽.
  5. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 4–5쪽.
  6. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 5–6쪽.
  7. ↑ Feldman 2013, 147, 151쪽.
  8. ↑ Feldman 2013, 155쪽.
  9. ↑ 가 나 Feldman & Bowman 2007.
  10. ↑ 가 나 다 Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 6쪽.
  11. ↑ 가 나 Rutman 2002.
  12. ↑ Feldman 2013, 156–157쪽.
  13. ↑ Gordis 2010, 164쪽.
  14. ↑ Feldman 2013, 157쪽.
  15. ↑ Feldman 2013, 158쪽.
  16. ↑ Feldman 2013, 143–145쪽.
  17. ↑ 가 나 다 라 Tec 2013.
  18. ↑ 가 나 Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 7쪽.
  19. ↑ 가 나 다 Bauer 1998.
  20. ↑ Feldman 2013, 145–146쪽.
  21. ↑ 가 나 Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 6–7쪽.
  22. ↑ Lawson 2010, 235–236쪽.
  23. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 9쪽.
  24. ↑ Bar-On 2004, 106쪽.
  25. ↑ Bar-On 2004, 107쪽.
  26. ↑ 가 나 다 Yablonka 2003, 5쪽.
  27. ↑ 가 나 Porat 2004, 622쪽.
  28. ↑ 가 나 Lawson 2010, 236쪽.
  29. ↑ 가 나 다 Yablonka 2003, 10쪽.
  30. ↑ Feldman 2013, 143쪽.
  31. ↑ Bar-On 2004, 107–108쪽.
  32. ↑ Bar-On 2004, 108쪽.
  33. ↑ 가 나 Feldman 2013, 146쪽.
  34. ↑ Ofer 2000, 43쪽.
  35. ↑ 가 나 Yablonka 2003, 17쪽.
  36. ↑ Porat 2004, 623–624쪽.
  37. ↑ Yablonka 2003, 17–18쪽.
  38. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 8쪽.
  39. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 9–10쪽.
  40. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 10쪽.
  41. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 11쪽.
  42. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 11–12쪽.
  43. ↑ 가 나 Lipstadt 2016, 53쪽.
  44. ↑ 가 나 Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 14쪽.
  45. ↑ Lipstadt 2016, 54쪽.
  46. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 24–25쪽.
  47. ↑ Feldman 2013, 152쪽.
  48. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 15쪽.
  49. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 22–23쪽.
  50. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 25쪽.
  51. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 17쪽.
  52. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 21–22쪽.
  53. ↑ Middleton-Kaplan 2014, 21쪽.
  54. ↑ Rosenberg 1999, 18–20쪽.
  55. ↑ Rosenberg 1999, 20–21쪽.
  56. ↑ “Like Sheep to the Slaughter?”. 《The New York Observer》. 2014년 2월 3일. 
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