ORION[편집]

George Stanley Faber
George Stanley Faber
Born	1773년 10월 25일
Died	1854년 1월 27일(80세)
Nationality	British
Spouse(s)	Eliza Sophie
	Theological work
Language	English

Jacob Bryant
Jacob Bryant
Born	1715; Plymouth, Devon
Died	14 November 1804 (aged 88–89)
Nationality	British
Occupation	scholar, mythographer

[Page 1] [PDF Page 16]

로마 시대에 많은 저술가들 야만인의 문헌에서 이교도의 수수께끼의 열쇠를 발견하였다[편집]

[Page 1] [S. I.] THE elder Greek writers, being ignorant themselves of the real meaning of their Theogonies, Heroogonies, and pretended (가짜[상상]의) ancient Histories, were of course unable to furnish us with any sufficient explanation of them. But in later times of what still must be called antiquity, when the united empire of the Greeks and Latins extended from the Rhine and Danube to Euphrates and the Thebais, many writers having access to other and, what were sometimes called, barbarous sources, discovered in them the keys to many riddles of paganism ;

The Thebaid or Thebais (Θηβαΐδα, Thēbaïda or Θηβαΐς, Thēbaïs) is the region of ancient Egypt containing the thirteen southernmost nomes of Upper Egypt, from Abydos to Aswan. It acquired its name from its proximity to the ancient Egyptian capital of Thebes.

In Ptolemaic Egypt, the Thebaid formed a single administrative district under the Epistrategos of Thebes, who was also responsible for overseeing navigation in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.

During the Roman Empire, Diocletian created the province of Thebais, guarded by the legions I Maximiana Thebanorum and II Flavia Constantia. This was later divided into Upper (Thebais Superior, Ἄνω Θηβαΐς, Anō Thēbaïs), comprising the southern half with its capital at Thebes, and Lower or Nearer (Thebais Inferior, Θηβαΐς Ἐγγίστη, Thēbaïs Engistē), comprising the northern half with capital at Ptolemais.

Around the 5th century, since it was a desert, the Thebaid became a place of retreat of a number of Christian hermits, and was the birthplace of Pachomius.^[1] In Christian art, the Thebaid was represented as a place with numerous monks.

이러한 저술가들이 권위자가 되었다[편집]

and these men, grammarians, sophists, fathers of the church, and various others, immeasurably (헤아릴 수 없을 정도로) as (~에도 불구하고) they may fall short of (~에 미치지 못하다) antique genius and acumen (감각), became in many things, by reason of the increase of positive (확실한, 분명한, 결정적인) knowledge, more useful authorities than even the greatest of the writers who went before them: not to say that their works comprehend (포괄하다, 충분히 이해하다), either avowedly (명백히), or by necessary (필연적인) inference, the contents of many truly ancient works, to which we have no access.

Macedonian dynasties 와 Roman governments 아래의 그리스의 학문[편집]

The literature of the Greeks began to enlarge its field, and to rifle (샅샅이 뒤지다) the unexplored treasures of the original East, under the Macedonian dynasties ; and the like investigation, carried on under the Roman governments, has not yet nearly arrived at its completion.

And so far from (…라기보다는 반대로) deserving rebuke (비난), we do but follow the light of human learning as it opens to our view, when we at times consult omnia omnium¹⁾ hominum et temporum commenta (= [구글 번역] all men of all times and the comments), and endeavour from such sources to improve and enlarge the circumscribed (제한[억제]하다) views of the mighty dead, [Page2] gravissimorum hominum Thucydidis et Aristotelis (= [구글 번역] most impressive of Thucydides and Aristotle).

¹⁾ V. Payne, Knight Proleg, s. 53.

Thucydides (/θjuːˈsɪd[미지원 입력]diːz/; Θουκυδίδης, Thoukydídēs; c. 460 – c. 395 BC) was a Greek historian and Athenian general. His History of the Peloponnesian War recounts the 5th century BC war between Sparta and Athens to the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been dubbed the father of "scientific history", because of his strict standards of evidence-gathering and analysis in terms of cause and effect without reference to intervention by the gods, as outlined in his introduction to his work.^[2]

He has also been called the father of the school of political realism, which views the relations between nations as based on might rather than right.^[3] His text is still studied at advanced military colleges worldwide, and the Melian dialogue remains a seminal work of international relations theory.

More generally, Thucydides showed an interest in developing an understanding of human nature to explain behaviour in such crises as plague, massacres, as in that of the Melians, and civil war.

Thucydides versus Herodotus

Thucydides (c. 460 – c. 395 BC) and his immediate predecessor Herodotus (c. 484–425 BC) both exerted a significant influence on Western historiography. Thucydides does not mention his counterpart by name, but his famous introductory statement is thought to refer to him:^[4]^[5]

“

To hear this history rehearsed, for that there be inserted in it no fables, shall be perhaps not delightful. But he that desires to look into the truth of things done, and which (according to the condition of humanity) may be done again, or at least their like, shall find enough herein to make him think it profitable. And it is compiled rather for an everlasting possession than to be rehearsed for a prize.

”

Herodotus records in his Histories not only the events of the Persian Wars but also geographical and ethnographical information, as well as the fables related to him during his extensive travels. Typically, he passes no definitive judgment on what he has heard. In the case of conflicting or unlikely accounts, he presents both sides, says what he believes and then invites readers to decide for themselves.^[6] The work of Herodotus is reported to have been recited at festivals, where prizes were awarded, as for example, during the games at Olympia.^[7]

Herodotus views history as a source of moral lessons, with conflicts and wars as misfortunes flowing from initial acts of injustice perpetuated through cycles of revenge.^[8] In contrast, Thucydides claims to confine himself to factual reports of contemporary political and military events, based on unambiguous, first-hand, eye-witness accounts,^[9] although, unlike Herodotus, he does not reveal his sources. Thucydides views life exclusively as political life, and history in terms of political history. Conventional moral considerations play no role in his analysis of political events while geographic and ethnographic aspects are omitted or, at best, of secondary importance. Subsequent Greek historians — such as Ctesias, Diodorus, Strabo, Polybius and Plutarch — held up Thucydides' writings as a model of truthful history. Lucian^[10] refers to Thucydides as having given Greek historians their law, requiring them to say what had been done (ὡς ἐπράχθη). Greek historians of the fourth century BC accepted that history was political and that contemporary history was the proper domain of a historian.^[11] Cicero calls Herodotus the "father of history;"^[12] yet the Greek writer Plutarch, in his Moralia (Ethics) denigrated Herodotus, as the "father of lies".^[13] Unlike Thucydides, however, these historians all continued to view history as a source of moral lessons.

Due to the loss of the ability to read Greek, Thucydides and Herodotus were largely forgotten during the Middle Ages in Western Europe, although their influence continued in the Byzantine world. In Europe, Herodotus become known and highly respected only in the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth century as an ethnographer, in part due to the discovery of America, where customs and animals were encountered even more surprising than what he had related. During the Reformation, moreover, information about Middle Eastern countries in the Histories provided a basis for establishing Biblical chronology as advocated by Isaac Newton.

The first European translation of Thucydides (into Latin) was made by the humanist Lorenzo Valla between 1448 and 1452, and the first Greek edition was published by Aldo Manunzio in 1502. During the Renaissance, however, Thucydides attracted less interest among Western European historians as a political philosopher than his successor, Polybius,^[14] although Poggio Bracciolini claimed to have been influenced by him. There is not much trace of Thucydides' influence in Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince (1513), which held that the chief aim of a new prince must be to "maintain his state" [i.e., his power] and that in so doing he is often compelled to act against faith, humanity and religion. Later historians, such as J. B. Bury, however, have noted parallels between them:

If, instead of a history, Thucydides had written an analytical treatise on politics, with particular reference to the Athenian empire, it is probable that . . . he could have forestalled Machiavelli. . . .[since] the whole innuendo of the Thucydidean treatment of history agrees with the fundamental postulate of Machiavelli, the supremacy of reason of state. To maintain a state said the Florentine thinker, "a statesman is often compelled to act against faith, humanity and religion." . . . But . . . the true Machiavelli, not the Machiavelli of fable. . . entertained an ideal: Italy for the Italians, Italy freed from the stranger: and in the service of this ideal he desired to see his speculative science of politics applied. Thucydides has no political aim in view: he was purely a historian. But it was part of the method of both alike to eliminate conventional sentiment and morality.^[15]

In the seventeenth century, the English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes, whose Leviathan advocated absolute monarchy, admired Thucydides and in 1628 was the first to translate his writings into English directly from Greek. Thucydides, Hobbes and Machiavelli are together considered the founding fathers of political realism, according to which state policy must primarily or solely focus on the need to maintain military and economic power rather than on ideals or ethics. Nineteenth-century positivist historians stressed what they saw as Thucydides' seriousness, his scientific objectivity and his advanced handling of evidence. A virtual cult following developed among such German philosophers as Friedrich Schelling, Friedrich Schlegel and Friedrich Nietzsche, who claimed that, "[in Thucydides], the portrayer of man, that culture of the most impartial knowledge of the world finds its last glorious flower." For Eduard Meyer, Macaulay and Leopold von Ranke, who initiated modern source-based history writing,^[16] Thucydides was again the model historian.^[17]^[18]

Generals and statesmen loved him: the world he drew was theirs, an exclusive power-brokers' club. It is no accident that even today Thucydides turns up as a guiding spirit in military academies, neocon think tanks and the writings of men like Henry Kissinger; whereas Herodotus has been the choice of imaginative novelists (Michael Ondaatje's novel The English Patient and the film based on it boosted the sale of the Histories to a wholly unforeseen degree) and — as food for a starved soul — of an equally imaginative foreign correspondent from Iron Curtain Poland, Ryszard Kapuscinski.^[19]

These historians also admired Herodotus, however, as social and ethnographic history increasingly came to be recognized as complementary to political history.^[20] In the twentieth century, this trend gave rise to the works of Johan Huizinga, Marc Bloch and Braudel, who pioneered the study of long-term cultural and economic developments and the patterns of everyday life. The Annales School, which exemplifies this direction, has been viewed as extending the tradition of Herodotus.^[21]

At the same time, Thucydides' influence was increasingly important in the area of international relations during the Cold War, through the work of Hans Morgenthau, Leo Strauss^[22] and Edward Carr.^[23]

The tension between the Thucydidean and Herodotean traditions extends beyond historical research. According to Irving Kristol, self-described founder of American Neoconservatism, Thucydides wrote "the favorite neoconservative text on foreign affairs";^[24] and Thucydides is a required text at the Naval War College, an American institution located in Rhode Island. On the other hand, Daniel Mendelsohn, in a review of a recent edition of Herodotus, suggests that, at least in his graduate school days during the Cold War, professing admiration of Thucydides served as a form of self-presentation:

To be an admirer of Thucydides' History, with its deep cynicism about political, rhetorical and ideological hypocrisy, with its all too recognizable protagonists — a liberal yet imperialistic democracy and an authoritarian oligarchy, engaged in a war of attrition fought by proxy at the remote fringes of empire — was to advertise yourself as a hardheaded connoisseur of global Realpolitik.^[25]

Another author, Thomas Geoghegan, whose speciality is labour rights, comes down on the side of Herodotus when it comes to drawing lessons relevant to Americans, who, he notes, tend to be rather isolationist in their habits (if not in their political theorizing): "We should also spend more funds to get our young people out of the library where they're reading Thucydides and get them to start living like Herodotus — going out and seeing the world."^[26]

고대 전통의 분석을 위한 길이 닦였다[편집]

Mr. Bryant의 etymology 사용과 G. S. Faber의 추구[편집]

Thus was the way paved for that fuller analysis of ancient traditions, which Mr. Bryant (Jacob Bryant: 1715~1804) attempted with so large a display of learning and cleverness, however little we may respect some of his reasonings, and his general use of that formidable (가공할, 어마어마한) engine, which he misnames etymology (어원 연구).

A living divine (즉, George Stanley Faber: 1773~1854; 저자 Algernon Herbert는 1792~1855) has pursued the same path with more caution, and has added to the results obtained by Mr. Bryant such confirmation, as must for ever prevent (예방/방지) the history of the Gentiles from relapsing into complete obscurity (잊혀짐, 모호함, 어려움)²⁾.

²⁾ Origin of Pagan Idolatry, 3 vols. 1816.

It should be remembered that the first-named of these writers (즉, Mr. Bryant), striking out (만들다) a path for himself, or building [if you will (말하자면)] a bridge over Chaos itself, has every excuse for imperfection, and challenges (이의를 제기하다[도전하다]) admiration for what he has done ;

[greek] O ?' iireira, [LST% \yyiat. tcuve Osoio.

Jacob Bryant (1715–1804) was a British scholar and mythographer, who has been described as "the outstanding figure among the mythagogues who flourished in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries".^[27]

Life

Bryant was born at Plymouth. His father worked in the customs there, but was afterwards moved to Chatham. Bryant was first sent to a school near Rochester, and then to Eton College. In 1736 he was elected to a scholarship at King's College, Cambridge, where he took his degrees of B.A. (1740) and M.A. (1744), later being elected a fellow.^[28] He returned to Eton as private tutor to the Duke of Marlborough. In 1756 he accompanied the duke, who was master-general of ordnance and commander-in-chief of the forces in Germany, to the Continent as private secretary. He was rewarded by a lucrative appointment in the ordnance department, which allowed him time to indulge his literary tastes. He was twice offered the mastership of Charterhouse school, but turned it down.

Bryant died on the 14th of November 1804 at Cippenham near Windsor. He left his library to King's College, having previously made some valuable presents from it to the king and the Duke of Marlborough. He bequeathed £2000 to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and £1000 for the use of the retired collegers of Eton.

Works

His chief works were A New System or Analysis of Ancient Mythology^[29] (1774–76, and later editions), Observations on the Plain of Troy (1795), and Dissertation concerning the Wars of Troy (1796). He also wrote on theological, political and literary subjects.

Mythographer

Bryant saw all mythology as derived from the Hebrew Scriptures, with Greek mythology arising via the Egyptians.^[30] The New System attempted to link the mythologies of the world to the stories recorded in Genesis. Bryant argued that the descendents of Ham had been the most energetic, but also the most rebellious peoples of the world and had given rise to the great ancient and classical civilisations. He called these people "Amonians", because he believed that the Egyptian god Amon was a deified form of Ham. He argued that Ham had been identified with the sun, and that much of pagan European religion derived from Amonian sun worship.

John Richardson, with Sir William Jones., was Bryant's chief opponent, in the preface to his Persian Dictionary. In an anonymous pamphlet, An Apology, Bryant sustained his opinions. Richardson then revised the dissertation on languages prefixed to the dictionary, and added a second part: Further Remarks on the New Analysis of Ancient Mythology (1778). Bryant also wrote a pamphlet in answer to Daniel Wyttenbach of Amsterdam, about the same time.^[31]

Bryant in the New System acknowledges help from William Barford.^[32] His theories are widely credited as an influence on the mythological system of William Blake, who had worked in his capacity as an engraver on the illustrations to Bryant's New System.

Classical scholar

In his books on Troy Bryant endeavoured to show that the existence of Troy and the Greek expedition were purely mythological, with no basis in real history. Andrew Dalzel in 1791 translated a work of Jean Baptiste Le Chevalier as Description of the Plain of Troy.^[33] It provoked Bryant's Observations upon a Treatise ... (on) the Plain of Troy (1795) and A Dissertation concerning the War of Troy (1796?). A fierce controversy resulted, with Bryant attacked by Thomas Falconer, John Morritt, William Vincent, and Gilbert Wakefield.^[31]

Other works

Bryant's first work was Observations and Enquiries relating to various parts of Ancient History, ... the Wind Euroclydon, the island Melite, the Shepherd Kings, (Cambridge, 1767). Bryant attacked the opinions of Bochart, Beza, Grotius, and Bentley.^[31]
When his account of the Apamean medal was disputed in the Gentleman's Magazine, Bryant defended himself in Apamean Medal and of the Inscription ΝΩΕ, London, 1775. Joseph Hilarius Eckhel upheld his views, but Daines Barrington and others opposed him in the Society of Antiquaries of London.^[31]

After his friend Robert Wood died in 1771, Bryant edited one of his works as An Essay on the Original Genius and Writings of Homer, with a Comparative View of the Troade (1775).
Vindiciæ Flavianæ: a Vindication of the Testimony of Josephus concerning Jesus Christ (1777) was anonymous; the second edition, with Bryant's name, was in 1780. The sequel was A Farther Illustration of the Analysis (1778). This work had an impact on Joseph Priestley.^[31]
An Address to Dr. Priestley ... upon Philosophical Necessity (1780); Priestley printed a reply the same year.^[31]
Bryant was an believer in the authenticity of Thomas Chatterton's fabrications. Chatterton had created poems written in mock Middle English and had attributed them to Thomas Rowley, an imaginary monk of the 15th century. When Thomas Tyrwhitt issued his work The Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol by Thomas Rowley and others,' Bryant with Robert Glynn followed with his Observations on the Poems of Thomas Rowley in which the Authenticity of those Poems is ascertained (2 vols., 1781).^[31]
Gemmarum Antiquarum Delectus (1783) was privately printed at the expense of the Duke of Marlborough, with engravings by Francesco Bartolozzi. The first volume was written in Latin by Bryant, and translated into French by Matthew Maty; the second by William Cole, with the French by Louis Dutens.^[31]
On the Zingara or Gypsey Language (1785) was read by Bryant to the Royal Society, and printed in the seventh volume of Archæologia.^[31]
A disquisition On the Land of Goshen, written about 1767, was published in William Bowyer's Miscellaneous Tracts, 1785.^[31]
A Treatise on the Authenticity of the Scriptures (1791) was anonymous; second edition, with author's name, 1793; third edition, 1810. This work was written at the instigation of the Dowager Countess Pembroke, daughter of his patron, and the profits were given to the hospital for smallpox and inoculation.^[31]
Observations on a controverted passage in Justyn Martyr; also upon the "Worship of Angels", London, 1793.^[31]
Observations upon the Plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians, with maps, London, 1794.^[31]
The Sentiments of Philo-Judæus concerning the Logos or Word of God (1797).
A treatise against Tom Paine.^[31]
'Observations upon some Passages in Scripture' (relating to Balaam, Joshua, Samson, and Jonah), London, 1803.^[31]

A projected work on the Gods of Greece and Rome was not produced by his executors. Some of his humorous verse in Latin and Greek was published.^[31]

References

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Bryant, Jacob.

George Stanley Faber (often written G. S. Faber; 25 October 1773 – 27 January 1854) was an Anglican theologian and prolific author.

He was a typologist, who believed that all the world's myths were corrupted versions of the original stories in the Bible, and an advocate of Day-Age Theory. He was a contemporary of John Nelson Darby. Faber's writings had an influence on Historicism^[34] and Dispensationalism.

Life

Faber, eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Faber, vicar of Calverley, Yorkshire, by Anne, daughter of the Rev. David Traviss, was born at Calverley parsonage on 25 October 1773, and educated at Hipperholme Grammar School, near Halifax, where he remained until he went to Oxford. On 10 June 1789 he matriculated from University College, being then only in his sixteenth year; he was elected a scholar on 25 March following, and took his B.A. degree when in his twentieth year. On 3 July 1793 he was elected a fellow and tutor of Lincoln College. He proceeded M.A. 1796 and B.D. 1803, served the office of proctor in 1801, and in the same year as Bampton lecturer preached a discourse, which he published under the title of Horæ Mosaicæ.

By his marriage, 31 May 1803, with Eliza Sophia, younger daughter of Major John Scott-Waring of Ince, Cheshire, he vacated his fellowship, and for the next two years acted as his father's curate at Calverley. In 1805 he was collated by Bishop Barrington to the vicarage of Stockton-on-Tees, which he resigned three years afterwards for the rectory of Redmarshall, also in Durham, and in 1811 he was presented by the same prelate to the rectory of Longnewton, in the same county, where he remained twenty-one years. Bishop Burgess collated him to a prebendal stall in Salisbury Cathedral in 1830, and Bishop van Mildert gave him the mastership of Sherburn Hospital in 1832, when he resigned the rectory of Longnewton. At Sherburn he devoted a very considerable part of his income to the permanent improvement of the hospital estates, and at his death left the buildings and the farms in perfect condition.

Views and work

Throughout his career he strenuously advocated the evangelical doctrines of the necessity of conversion, justification by faith, and the sole authority of scripture as the rule of faith. By this conduct, as well as by his able writings, he obtained the friendship of Bishop Burgess, Bishop van Mildert, Bishop Barrington, the Marquis of Bath, Lord Bexley, and Dr. Routh.

His work on The Origin of Pagan Idolatry, 1816, is prescientific in its character. He considers that all the pagan nations worshipped the same gods, who were only deified men. This began at the Tower of Babel, and the triads of supreme gods among the heathens represent the three sons of Noah. He also wrote on the Arkite Egg’ and some of his views on this subject may likewise be found in his Bampton Lectures. His treatises on the Revelations and on the Seven Vials belong to the older school of prophetic interpretation, and the restoration of the French empire under Napoleon III was brought into his scheme.

His books on the primitive doctrines of election and justification retain some importance. He laid stress on the evangelical view of these doctrines in opposition to the opinion of contemporary writers of very different schools, such as Vicesimus Knox and Joseph Milner. His works show some research and careful writing, but are not of much permanent value. He died at Sherburn Hospital, near Durham, 27 January 1854, and was buried in the chapel of the hospital on 1 February His wife died at Sherburn House 28 November 1851, aged 75.

Works

영어 위키문헌에 이 글과
관련된 원문이 있습니다.

An Inquiry into the History and Theology of the Ancient Vallenses and Albigenses

His works include:

‘Two Sermons before the University of Oxford, an attempt to explain by recent events five of the Seven Vials mentioned in the Revelations,’ 1799.
‘Horæ Mosaicæ, or a View of the Mosaical Records with respect to their coincidence with Profane Antiquity and their connection with Christianity,’ ‘Bampton Lectures,’ 1801.
‘A Dissertation on the Mysteries of the Cabiri, or the Great Gods of Phœnicia, Samothrace, Egypt, Troas, Greece, Italy, and Crete,’ 2 vols. 1803.
‘Thoughts on the Calvinistic and Arminian Controversy,’ 1803.
‘A Dissertation on the Prophecies relative to the Great Period of 1,200 Years, the Papal and Mahomedan Apostasies, the Reign of Antichrist, and the Restoration of the Jews,’ 2 vols. 1807; 5th ed., 3 vols. 1814–18.
‘A General and Connected View of the Prophecies relative to the Conversion of Judah and Israel, the Overthrow of the Confederacy in Palestine, and the Diffusion of Christianity,’ 2 vols. 1808.
‘A Practical Treatise on the Ordinary Operations of the Holy Spirit,’ 1813; 3rd ed. 1823.
‘Remarks on the Fifth Apocalyptic Vial and the Restoration of the Imperial Government of France,’ 1815.
‘The Origin of Pagan Idolatry ascertained from Historical Testimony and Circumstantial Evidence,’ 3 vols. 1816.
‘A Treatise on the Genius and Object of the Patriarchal, the Levitical, and the Christian Dispensations,’ 2 vols. 1823.
‘The Difficulties of Infidelity,’ 1824.
‘The Difficulties of Romanism,’ 1826; 3rd ed. 1853.
‘A Treatise on the Origin of Expiatory Sacrifice,’ 1827.
‘The Testimony of Antiquity against the Peculiarities of the Latin Church,’ 1828.
‘The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy, or a Dissertation on the Prophecies of the Grand Period of Seven Times, and of its Second Moiety, or the latter three times and a half,’ 3 vols. 1828; 2nd ed. 1844.
‘Letters on Catholic Emancipation,’ 1829.
‘The Fruits of Infidelity contrasted with the Fruits of Christianity,’ 1831.
‘The Apostolicity of Trinitarianism, the Testimony of History to the Antiquity and to the Apostolical Inculcation of the Doctrine of the Holy Trinity,’ 2 vols. 1832.
‘The Primitive Doctrine of Election, or an Enquiry into Scriptural Election as received in the Primitive Church of Christ,’ 1836; 2nd ed. 1842.
‘The Primitive Doctrine of Justification investigated, relatively to the Definitions of the Church of Rome and the Church of England,’ 1837.
‘An Enquiry into the History and Theology of the Vallenses and Albigenses, as exhibiting the Perpetuity of the Sincere Church of Christ,’ 1838.
‘Christ's Discourse at Capernaum fatal to the Doctrine of Transubstantiation on the very Principle of Exposition adopted by the Divines of the Roman Church,’ 1840.
‘Eight Dissertations on Prophetical Passages of Holy Scripture bearing upon the promise of a Mighty Deliverer,’ 2 vols. 1845.
‘Letters on Tractarian Secessions to Popery,’ 1846.
‘Papal Infallibility, a Letter to a Dignitary of the Church of Rome,’ 1851.
‘The Predicted Downfall of the Turkish Power, the Preparation for the Return of the Ten Tribes,’ 1853.
‘The Revival of the French Emperorship, anticipated from the Necessity of Prophecy,’ 1852; 5th ed. 1859.
'An Inquiry into the History and Theology of the Ancient Vallenses and Albigenses,' originally 1838, reprinted 1990, Church History Research & Archives

Many of these works were answered in print, and among those who wrote against Faber's views were Thomas Arnold, Shute Barrington (bishop of Durham), Christopher Bethell (bishop of Gloucester), George Corless, James Hatley Frere, Richard Hastings Graves, Thomas Harding (vicar of Bexley), Frederic Charles Husenbeth, Samuel Lee, D.D., Samuel Roffey Maitland, D.D., N. Nisbett, Thomas Pinder Pantin, Le Pappe de Trévern, and Edward William Whitaker.

Neologiser

He also coined the following words:

이 글은 퍼블릭 도메인: 〈Faber, George Stanley〉. 《영국인명사전》. 런던: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. 에서 나온 글과 연관되어 있습니다.

External links

사용자:배우는사람/틀:Portal

Works available on-line:
- The Origin of Pagan Idolatry, Vol 1. (2MB PDF.)
- Napoleon III. The Man of Prophecy (Scanned pages, 1859 American edition.)
- The Apostolicity of Trinitarianism

Algernon Herbert (12 July 1792 – 11 June 1855) was an English antiquary.^[35]

Biography

Herbert was the sixth and youngest son of Henry Herbert, 1st Earl of Carnarvon by Elizabeth Alicia Maria, elder daughter of Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont. He was educated at Eton from 1805 onwards, and progressed to Christ Church, Oxford, where he matriculated on 23 October 1810. He went on to study at Exeter College, and graduated B.A. in 1813 and M.A. in 1825. He was elected a fellow of Merton College in 1814; became sub-warden in 1826, and dean in 1828.^[35]

On 27 November 1818 he was called to the bar at the Inner Temple. Herbert was the author of some remarkable works replete with abstruse learning. They are, however, discursive, and his arguments are inconclusive.^[35]

He married, on 2 August 1830, Marianne, sixth daughter of Thomas Lempriere of La Motte, Jersey; she died on 7 August 1870. They had one son, Sir Robert George Wyndham Herbert, and two daughters. Herbert died at Ickleton, Cambridgeshire.^[35]

Works

His works were:^[35]

Nimrod, a Discourse upon Certain Passages of History and Fable, 1826; reprinted and remodelled in 2 vols., 1828, with a third volume in the same year, and vol. iv in 1829–30.
An article on Werewolves, by A. Herbert, pp. 1–45, in The Ancient English Romance of William and the Werwolf (ed. F. Madden, Roxburghe Club, 1832).
Britannia after the Romans, 1836–41, 2 vols.
Nennius, the Irish version of the Historia Britonum. Introduction and Notes by A. Herbert, 1848.
Cyclops Christianus, or the supposed Antiquity of Stonehenge, 1849.
On the Poems of the Poor of Lyons, and three other articles in the Appendix to J. H. Todd's Books of the Vaudois (1865), pp. 93, 126, 135, 172.

Mr. Bryant의 etymology 사용과 G. S. Faber의 추구의 미진한 점: 상징의 분석과 해석에 치우치고 인간의 동기와 행동에 대해서는 덜 조사함[편집]

But it has appeared to me, in reflecting upon these subjects from time to time, that the writers who have handled them, have left their task incomplete, and in some instances taken up erroneous judgments, by confining their research too much to the analysis and interpretation of symbols, being (if I may so say) the causa materialis (즉, cause material) of Paganism, while they have but imperfectly examined and discovered the efficient and the final causes of the same, that is to say, the human motives and actions, by which the most ancient transactions (처리) on record were brought about.

이전 저술가들이 놓은 토대에 대한 저자의 입장과 태도[편집]

In giving to the public these observations of my own, I build upon the foundations which others have laid, as far as I believe in their soundness; but, knowing well the paralysing effects of a mass of ready prepared materials upon an indolent (게으른, 나태한) temper of mind, once indulged, and the inaccurate mode in which even respectable authours make their references and quotations, I have in most instances withheld myself [Page 3] the use of former compilations (편집본, 모음집), and offer little or nothing but what I have been at the pains of fetching with my own hands from the fountain head.

대홍수 이전에 일어난 일에 대한 자료는 적다[편집]

[S. II.] What passed before the flood is so little known from historical sources, and so much (그만큼의) the smaller portion of the mythological narrations relate to (~에 대해 언급하다) it (= What passed before the flood), that whatever is to be said concerning it, will better come in by way of inference from other things of more recent date, and in subsequent parts of my Essay.

대홍수 후의 배교자, 특히 님로드가 전설과 우화의 자료의 대부분을 제공한 것으로 보인다[편집]

The apostates (변절자; 배교자) after the deluge, and Nimrod especially, appear to have furnished the materials of most of the legends and fables, which exist among the various nations. Of this man, and of certain other persons, there are nearly as many names and titles, as there are mythi (신화, mythus의 복수형) or ancient romances in existence.

The Genesis flood narrative is a flood myth in the Hebrew Bible, comprising chapters 6-9 in the Book of Genesis. The narrative indicates that the God of Israel intended to return the Earth to its pre-Creation state of watery chaos by flooding the Earth for 370 days (the 150 days of flooding + the 220 days it took to dry up the floodwaters) because of the world's evil doings and then remake it using the microcosm of Noah's ark. Thus, the flood was no ordinary overflow but a reversal of creation.^[36] The narrative discusses the evil of mankind that moved God to destroy the world by the way of the flood, the preparation of the ark for certain animals, Noah, and his family, and God's guarantee for the continued existence of life under the promise that he would never send another flood.^[37]

Origins

Composition

According to most exegetes, the Genesis narrative is composed of two different stories (the Jahwist (YHWH) source and the Priestly (Elohim) source) that were interwoven into the final canonical form of Genesis 6-9.^[38] Although there are differences in characteristic style and vocabulary, overall they are not contradictory. ^[36] However, where apparent contradictions do exist, they were not typically viewed as mistakes by Jewish scholars, but as allusions to deeper meanings. Even later interpreters sought to discover the basic harmony that underlies the narrative whether written by different authors, at different times, or within different cultures.^[39]

Notable difficulties are:

the two different reasons for bringing a destructive flood,
Noah being given different instructions about what animals and birds to take on board the ark,
the two different time frames for how long the flood lasts,
the source of the flood waters,
the circumstances by which Noah and the animals leave the ark, and
the use of two different names in reference to God.^[38]

Setting

The Masoretic text of the Torah, or Pentateuch, places the Great Deluge 1,656 years after Creation, or 1656 AM (Anno Mundi, "Year of the World"). Many attempts have been made to place this time-span to a specific date in history.^[40] At the turn of the 17th century, Joseph Scaliger placed Creation at 3950 BC, Petavius calculated 3982 BC,^[41]^[42] and according to James Ussher's Ussher chronology, Creation begun in 4004 BC, dating the Great Deluge to 2348 BC.^[43]

Flood Geology

Main articles: Flood geology and Scriptural geologist

The development of scientific geology had a profound impact on attitudes towards the biblical Flood narrative. Without the support of the Biblical chronology, which placed the Creation and the Flood in a history which stretched back no more than a few thousand years, the historicity of the ark itself was undermined. In 1823, William Buckland interpreted geological phenomena as Reliquiae Diluvianae: relics of the flood which "attested the action of a universal deluge". His views were supported by other English clergymen and naturalists at the time, including the influential Adam Sedgwick, but by 1830 Sedgwick considered that the evidence only showed local floods. The deposits were subsequently explained by Louis Agassiz as the results of glaciation.^[44]

In 1862, William Thompson, later Lord Kelvin, calculated the age of the Earth at between 24 million and 400 million years, and for the remainder of the 19th century, discussion focused not on whether this theory of deep time was viable, but on the derivation of a more precise figure for the age of the Earth.^[45] Lux Mundi, an 1889 volume of theological essays which is usually held to mark a stage in the acceptance of a more critical approach to scripture, took the stance that the gospels could be relied upon as completely historical, but that the earlier chapters of Genesis should not be taken literally.^[46]

Flood narrative

Nephilim

Main articles: Sons of God and Nephilim

Genesis 6:1–4 presents the Sons of God marrying the daughters of men and siring a race of giants, the "mighty men that were of old, the men of renown." Genesis continues, "And the LORD saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually."^[47] God decided to destroy what he had made and start again with the righteous Noah. God chose the flood as the instrument for destruction which is portrayed as a veritable reversal of creation.^[48]

Preparing the ark

The Deluge (illustration by Gustave Doré from the 1865 *La Sainte Bible*)

Main article: Noah's ark

Beginning with Genesis 6:14, God gives instructions to Noah to build a waterproof vessel that would house his immediate family, along with a sample of animal life.^[49] The vessel is an ark made of gopher wood covered in pitch inside and outside. The ark was to be 300 cubits long, 50 cubits wide, and 30 cubits high, and have an opening for daylight near the top, an entrance on its side, and three decks. God told Noah that he, his sons, his wife, his sons’ wives, and two of each kind of beast — male and female — would survive in the Ark (Genesis 6:1-22). Seven days before the Flood, God told Noah to enter the Ark with his household, and to take seven pairs of every clean animal and every bird, and one pair of every other animal, to keep their kind alive (Genesis 7:1–5).

Great deluge

The priestly (Elohim) source of Genesis 7:11;8:1-2 describes the nature of the flood waters as a cosmic cataclysm, by the opening of the springs of the deep and the floodgates, or windows, of heaven. This is the reverse of the separation of the waters recounted in the Genesis creation narrative of chapter 1. After Noah and the remnant of animals were secured, the fountains of the great deep and the floodgates, or windows, of the heavens were opened, causing rain to fall on the Earth for 960 hours, or 40 days. The waters elevated, with the summits of the highest mountains under 15 cubits (22 feet 6 inches) of water, ^[49] flooding the world for 150 days, and then receding in 220 days.^[50]

The Jahwist (YHWH) version of how the flood waters came to be, is indicated in Genesis 7:12 where it develops by way of a torrential downpour that lasts 40 days, then recedes in seven day periods.^[50] During this time, the Ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat where Noah opens the window and sends out a raven that went to and fro. Then he sends out a dove to see if the waters had decreased from the ground, but the dove could not find a resting place, and returned to the Ark. He waited another seven days, and again sent out the dove, and the dove came back toward evening with an olive leaf. He waited another seven days and sent out the dove, and it did not return. When Noah removed the covering of the Ark, he saw that the ground was drying. (Genesis 8:1-13)

Rainbow covenant

God makes a pledge of commitment to Noah in Genesis 9:1–17. The priestly (Elohim) version takes the form of a covenant arrangement. This is the first explicit act of a covenant in the Hebrew Bible and is used seven times in this episode. God commits to continue both human and animal life and vows to never again use a second deluge against humanity. The covenant is sealed with the sign of a rainbow, after a storm, as a reminder.^[51]

God blesses Noah and his sons using the same language as the priestly source of the Genesis creation narrative, "Be fruitful and increase and fill the earth."^[52] Before the flood, animals and humans coexisted in a realm of peace only knowing a vegetarian diet. After the flood, God maintained that mankind would be in charge over the animals, granting that they may be eaten for food under the condition that their blood be removed.^[53] God set these purity rules well before any transaction with Ancient Israel, effectively not confining such precedence solely to the Jewish faith.^[54] Human life receives special divine sanction because humanity is in the image of Elohim.^[55]

Islam

The Qu'ran states that Noah (Nūḥ) was inspired by the God in Islam, believed in the oneness of God, and preached Islam.^[56] God commands Noah to build a ship. As he was building it, the chieftains passed him and mocked him. Upon its completion, the ship was loaded with only the animals in Noah's care^{[출처 필요]} as well as his immediate household,^[57] along with 76 who did submit to God. The people who denied the message of Noah, including one of his own sons, drowned.^[58] The final resting place of the ship was referred to as Mount Judi.^[59]

Yazidi

According to the Yazidi Mishefa Reş, two flood events occur. The first Deluge involved Noah and his family whose ark landed at a place called Ain Sifni in the region of Nineveh Plains, 40 킬로미터 (25 mi) north-east of Mosul. In the second flood, the Yazidi race was preserved in the person of Na'mi (or Na'umi), surnamed Malik Miran, who became the second founder of their race.^[60] His ship was pierced by a rock as it floated above Mount Sinjar, but settled in the same location as it is in Islamic tradition, Mount Judi.^{[출처 필요]}

See also

Bibliography

Bandstra, Barry L. (2009). 《Reading the Old Testament : an introduction to the Hebrew Bible》 4판. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning. 59–66쪽. ISBN 0495391050.

Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2004). 《Treasures old and new : essays in the theology of the Pentateuch》. Grand Rapids, Mich. [u.a.]: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. 45쪽. ISBN 0802826792.

Cotter, David W. (2003). 《Genesis》. Collegeville (Minn.): Liturgical press. 49–64쪽. ISBN 0814650406.

Further reading

Hamilton, Victor P (1990). 《The book of Genesis: chapters 1-17》. Eerdmans.

Kessler, Martin; Deurloo, Karel Adriaan (2004). 《A commentary on Genesis: the book of beginnings》. Paulist Press.

McKeown, James (2008). 《Genesis》. Eerdmans.

Rogerson, John William (1991). 《Genesis 1-11》. T&T Clark.

Sacks, Robert D (1990). 《A Commentary on the Book of Genesis》. Edwin Mellen.

Towner, Wayne Sibley (2001). 《Genesis》. Westminster John Knox Press.

Wenham, Gordon (2003). 〈Genesis〉. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson. 《Eerdmans Bible Commentary》. Eerdmans.

Whybray, R.N (2001). 〈Genesis〉. John Barton. 《Oxford Bible Commentary》. Oxford University Press.

Nimrod (/ˈnɪm.rɒd/,^[61] 히브리어: נִמְרוֹדֿ‎, 현대 히브리어: Nimrod, 티베리아 히브리어: Nimrōḏ ܢܡܪܘܕ نمرود), king of Shinar, was, according to the Book of Genesis and Books of Chronicles, the son of Cush and great-grandson of Noah. He is depicted in the Tanakh as a man of power in the earth, and a mighty hunter. Extra-biblical traditions associating him with the Tower of Babel led to his reputation as a king who was rebellious against God. Several Mesopotamian ruins were given Nimrod's name by 8th-century Arabs^[62] (see Nimrud).

Biblical account

The first mention of Nimrod is in the Table of Nations.^[62] He is described as the son of Cush, grandson of Ham, and great-grandson of Noah; and as "a mighty one on the earth" and "a mighty hunter before God". This is repeated in the First Book of Chronicles 1:10, and the "Land of Nimrod" used as a synonym for Assyria or Mesopotamia, is mentioned in the Book of Micah 5:6:

And they shall waste the land of Assyria with the sword, and the land of Nimrod in the entrances thereof: thus shall he deliver us from the Assyrian, when he cometh into our land, and when he treadeth within our borders.

Genesis says that the "beginning of his kingdom" (reshit memelketo) was the towns of "Babel, Uruk, Akkad and Calneh in the land of Shinar" (Mesopotamia) — understood variously to imply that he either founded these cities, ruled over them, or both. Owing to an ambiguity in the original Hebrew text, it is unclear whether it is he or Asshur who additionally built Nineveh, Resen, Rehoboth-Ir and Calah (both interpretations are reflected in various English versions). (Genesis 10:8–12) (Genesis 10:8-12; 1 Chronicles 1:10, Micah 5:6). Sir Walter Raleigh devoted several pages in his History of the World (c. 1616) to reciting past scholarship regarding the question of whether it had been Nimrod or Ashur who built the cities in Assyria.^[63]

Traditions and legends

In Hebrew and Christian tradition, Nimrod is traditionally considered the leader of those who built the Tower of Babel in the land of Shinar,^[64] though the Bible never actually states this. Nimrod's kingdom included the cities of Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, all in Shinar. (Ge 10:10) Therefore it was likely under his direction that the building of Babel and its tower began; in addition to Flavius Josephus, this is also the view found in the Talmud (Chullin 89a, Pesahim 94b, Erubin 53a, Avodah Zarah 53b), and later midrash such as Genesis Rabba. Several of these early Judaic sources also assert that the king Amraphel, who wars with Abraham later in Genesis, is none other than Nimrod himself.

Judaic interpreters as early as Philo and Yochanan ben Zakai (1st century AD) interpreted "a mighty hunter before the Lord" (Heb. : לפני יהוה, lit. "in the face of the Lord") as signifying "in opposition to the Lord"; a similar interpretation is found in Pseudo-Philo, as well as later in Symmachus. Some rabbinic commentators have also connected the name Nimrod with a Hebrew word meaning 'rebel'. In Pseudo-Philo (dated ca. AD 70), Nimrod is made leader of the Hamites; while Joktan as leader of the Semites, and Fenech as leader of the Japhethites, are also associated with the building of the Tower.^[65] Versions of this story are again picked up in later works such as Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius (7th century AD).

The Book of Jubilees mentions the name of "Nebrod" (the Greek form of Nimrod) only as being the father of Azurad, the wife of Eber and mother of Peleg (8:7). This account would thus make him an ancestor of Abraham, and hence of all Hebrews.

Josephus wrote:

"Now it was Nimrod who excited them to such an affront (모욕) and contempt of God. He was the grandson of Ham, the son of Noah, a bold man, and of great strength of hand. He persuaded them not to ascribe it to God, as if it were through his means they were happy, but to believe that it was their own courage which procured that happiness. He also gradually changed the government into tyranny, seeing no other way of turning men from the fear of God, but to bring them into a constant dependence on his power. He also said he would be revenged on (…에게 복수하다) God, if he should have a mind to drown the world again; for that he would build a tower too high for the waters to reach. And that he would avenge himself on God for destroying their forefathers.

avenge / revenge
avenge는 동사이고, revenge는 (대개) 명사로 쓰인다.

avenge는 ‘avenge something(~에 대해 복수하다)’이나 ‘avenge oneself on somebody(~에게 복수하다)’ 의 형태로 쓰인다:
She vowed to avenge her brother’s death. (그녀는 오빠[동생]의 죽음에 대해 복수를 하리라 맹세했다.)

He later avenged himself on his wife’s killers. (그는 나중에 아내를 죽인 자들에게 복수를 했다.)

revenge는 ‘take revenge on a person(~에게 복수하다)’의 형태로 쓰인다.

더 격식체이거나 문예체인 영어에서는 revenge도 동사로 쓰일 수 있다. 이 때는 ‘revenge oneself on somebody (~에게 복수하다)’나 ‘are revenged on somebody (~에게 복수하다)’의 형태로 쓰인다:

He was later revenged on his wife’s killers. (그는 나중에 아내를 죽인 자들에게 복수를 했다.)

‘revenge something’의 형태로는 쓸 수 없다: She vowed to revenge her brother’s death. (×)

출처:Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Korean Dictionary

Now the multitude were very ready to follow the determination of Nimrod, and to esteem (생각하다) it a piece of cowardice to submit to God; and they built a tower, neither sparing any pains (수고를 아끼지 않다), nor being in any degree negligent (태만한) about the work: and, by reason of the multitude of hands employed in it, it grew very high, sooner than any one could expect; but the thickness of it was so great, and it was so strongly built, that thereby its great height seemed, upon the view, to be less than it really was. It was built of burnt brick, cemented together with mortar, made of bitumen (역청), that it might not be liable to admit water. When God saw that they acted so madly, he did not resolve to destroy them utterly, since they were not grown wiser by the destruction of the former sinners; but he caused a tumult (소란) among them, by producing in them diverse languages, and causing that, through the multitude of those languages, they should not be able to understand one another. The place wherein they built the tower is now called Babylon, because of the confusion of that language which they readily understood before; for the Hebrews mean by the word Babel, confusion…"

An early Arabic work known as Kitab al-Magall or the Book of Rolls (part of Clementine literature) states that Nimrod built the towns of Hadâniûn, Ellasar, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Rûhîn, Atrapatene, Telalôn, and others, that he began his reign as king over earth when Reu was 163, and that he reigned for 69 years, building Nisibis, Raha (Edessa) and Harran when Peleg was 50. It further adds that Nimrod "saw in the sky a piece of black cloth and a crown." He called upon Sasan the weaver and commanded him to make him a crown like it, which he set jewels on and wore. He was allegedly the first king to wear a crown. "For this reason people who knew nothing about it, said that a crown came down to him from heaven." Later, the book describes how Nimrod established fire worship and idolatry, then received instruction in divination for three years from Bouniter, the fourth son of Noah.^[66]

In the Recognitions (R 4.29), one version of the Clementines, Nimrod is equated with the legendary Assyrian king Ninus, who first appears in the Greek historian Ctesias as the founder of Nineveh. However, in another version, the Homilies (H 9.4-6), Nimrod is made to be the same as Zoroaster.

The Syriac Cave of Treasures (ca. 350) contains an account of Nimrod very similar to that in the Kitab al-Magall, except that Nisibis, Edessa and Harran are said to be built by Nimrod when Reu was 50, and that he began his reign as the first king when Reu was 130. In this version, the weaver is called Sisan, and the fourth son of Noah is called Yonton.

Jerome, writing ca. 390, explains in Hebrew Questions on Genesis that after Nimrod reigned in Babel, "he also reigned in Arach [Erech], that is, in Edissa; and in Achad [Accad], which is now called Nisibis; and in Chalanne [Calneh], which was later called Seleucia after King Seleucus when its name had been changed, and which is now in actual fact called Ctesiphon." However, this traditional identification of the cities built by Nimrod in Genesis is no longer accepted by modern scholars, who consider them to be located in Sumer, not Syria.

The Ge'ez Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan (ca. 5th century) also contains a version similar to that in the Cave of Treasures', but the crown maker is called Santal, and the name of Noah's fourth son who instructs Nimrod is Barvin.

However, Ephrem the Syrian (306-373) relates a contradictory view, that Nimrod was righteous and opposed the builders of the Tower. Similarly, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (date uncertain) mentions a Jewish tradition that Nimrod left Shinar and fled to Assyria, because he refused to take part in building the Tower — for which God rewarded him with the four cities in Assyria, to substitute for the ones in Babel.

Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer (c. 833) relates the Jewish traditions that Nimrod inherited the garments of Adam and Eve from his father Cush, and that these made him invincible. Nimrod's party then defeated the Japhethites to assume universal rulership. Later, Esau (grandson of Abraham), ambushed (매복했다가 습격하다), beheaded, and robbed Nimrod. These stories later reappear in other sources including the 16th century Sefer haYashar, which adds that Nimrod had a son named Mardon who was even more wicked.^[67]

In the History of the Prophets and Kings by the 9th century Muslim historian al-Tabari, Nimrod has the tower built in Babil, Allah destroys it, and the language of mankind, formerly Syriac, is then confused into 72 languages. Another Muslim historian of the 13th century, Abu al-Fida, relates the same story, adding that the patriarch Eber (an ancestor of Abraham) was allowed to keep the original tongue, Hebrew in this case, because he would not partake in the building. The 10th-century Muslim historian Masudi recounts a legend making the Nimrod who built the tower to be the son of Mash, the son of Aram, son of Shem, adding that he reigned 500 years over the Nabateans. Later, Masudi lists Nimrod as the first king of Babylon, and states that he dug great canals and reigned 60 years. Still elsewhere, he mentions another king Nimrod, son of Canaan, as the one who introduced astrology and attempted to kill Abraham.

In Armenian legend, the ancestor of the Armenian people, Hayk, defeated Nimrod (sometimes equated with Bel) in a battle near Lake Van.

In the Hungarian legend of the Enchanted Stag (마법에 걸린 수사슴) (more commonly known as the White Stag [Fehér Szarvas] or Silver Stag), King Nimród (aka Ménrót and often described as "Nimród the Giant" or "the giant Nimród", descendant of one of Noah's "most wicked" sons, Kam - references abound in traditions, legends, several religions and historical sources to persons and nations bearing the name of Kam or Kám, and overwhelmingly, the connotations are negative), is the first person referred to as forefather of the Hungarians. He, along with his entire nation, is also the giant responsible for the building of the Tower of Babel - construction of which was supposedly started by him 201 years after the event of the Great Flood (see biblical story of Noah's Ark &c.). After the catastrophic failure (through God's will) of that most ambitious endeavour and in the midst of the ensuing linguistic cacophony (불협화음), Nimród the giant moved to the land of Evilát, where his wife, Enéh gave birth to twin brothers Hunor and Magyar (aka Magor). Father and sons were, all three of them, prodigious (엄청난) hunters, but Nimród especially is the archetypal, consummate (완벽한), legendary hunter and archer. Both the Huns' and Magyars' historically attested skill with the recurve (뒤로 휘다) bow and arrow are attributed to Nimród. (Simon Kézai, personal "court priest" of King László Kún, in his Gesta Hungarorum, 1282-85. This tradition can also be found in over twenty other medieval Hungarian chronicles, as well as a German one, according to Dr Antal Endrey in an article published in 1979).

The twin sons of King Nimród, Hunor and Magor, each with 100 warriors, followed the White Stag through the Meotis Marsh, where they lost sight of the magnificent animal. Hunor and Magor found the two daughters of King Dul of the Alans, together with their handmaidens (하녀), whom they kidnapped. Hungarian legends held Hunor and Magyar (aka Magor) to be ancestors of the Huns and the Magyars (Hungarians), respectively.

According to the Miholjanec legend, Stephen V of Hungary had in front of his tent a golden plate with the inscription: "Attila, the son of Bendeuci, grandson of the great Nimrod, born at Engedi: By the Grace of God King of the Huns, Medes, Goths, Dacians, the horrors of the world and the scourge (재앙, 골칫거리) of God."

The evil Nimrod vs. the righteous Abraham

The Bible does not mention any meeting between Nimrod and Abraham, although a confrontation between the two is said to have taken place, according to several Jewish and Islamic traditions. Some stories bring them both together in a cataclysmic (대격변) collision, seen as a symbol of the confrontation between Good and Evil, and/or as a symbol of monotheism against polytheism. On the other hand, some Jewish traditions say only that the two men met and had a discussion.^[9]

According to K. van der Toorn; P. W. van der Horst, this tradition is first attested in the writings of Pseudo-Philo.^[68] The story is also found in the Talmud, and in rabbinical writings in the Middle Ages.^[69]

In some versions (as in Flavius Josephus), Nimrod is a man who sets his will against that of God. In others, he proclaims himself a god and is worshipped as such by his subjects, sometimes with his consort Semiramis worshipped as a goddess at his side. (See also Ninus.)

A portent (징조) in the stars tells Nimrod and his astrologers of the impending birth of Abraham, who would put an end to idolatry. Nimrod therefore orders the killing of all newborn babies. However, Abraham's mother escapes into the fields and gives birth secretly. At a young age, Abraham recognizes God and starts worshiping Him. He confronts Nimrod and tells him face-to-face to cease his idolatry, whereupon Nimrod orders him burned at the stake. In some versions, Nimrod has his subjects gather wood for four whole years, so as to burn Abraham in the biggest bonfire (모닥불) the world had ever seen. Yet when the fire is lit, Abraham walks out unscathed (하나도 다치지 않은).

In some versions, Nimrod then challenges Abraham to battle. When Nimrod appears at the head of enormous armies, Abraham produces an army of gnats (각다귀) which destroys Nimrod's army. Some accounts have a gnat or mosquito enter Nimrod's brain and drive him out of his mind (a divine retribution which Jewish tradition also assigned to the Roman Emperor Titus (39 - 81), destroyer of the Temple in Jerusalem).

In some versions, Nimrod repents and accepts God, offering numerous sacrifices that God rejects (as with Cain). Other versions have Nimrod give to Abraham, as a conciliatory (회유하기 위한) gift, the slave Eliezer, whom some accounts describe as Nimrod's own son. (The Bible also mentions Eliezer as Abraham's majordomo (집사), though not making any connection between him and Nimrod.)

Still other versions have Nimrod persisting in his rebellion against God, or resuming it. Indeed, Abraham's crucial act of leaving Mesopotamia and settling in Canaan is sometimes interpreted as an escape from Nimrod's revenge. Accounts considered canonical place the building of the Tower many generations before Abraham's birth (as in the Bible, also Jubilees); however in others, it is a later rebellion after Nimrod failed in his confrontation with Abraham. In still other versions, Nimrod does not give up after the Tower fails, but goes on to try storming (기습[급습]하다) Heaven in person, in a chariot driven by birds.

The story attributes to Abraham elements from the story of Moses' birth (the cruel king killing innocent babies, with the midwives (산파) ordered to kill them) and from the careers of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego who emerged unscathed from the fire. Nimrod is thus given attributes of two archetypal cruel and persecuting kings - Nebuchadnezzar and Pharaoh. Some Jewish traditions also identified him with Cyrus (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC) whose birth according to Herodotus was accompanied by portents which made his grandfather try to kill him.

A confrontation is also found in the Islamic Qur'an, between a king, not mentioned by name, and the Prophet Ibrahim (Arabic version of "Abraham"). Muslim commentators assign Nimrod as the king based on Jewish sources. In Ibrahim's confrontation with the king, the former argues that Allah (God) is the one who gives life and gives death. The king responds by bringing out two people sentenced to death. He releases one and kills the other as a poor attempt at making a point that he also brings life and death. Ibrahim refutes him by stating that Allah brings the Sun up from the East, and so he asks the king to bring it from the West. The king is then perplexed and angered.

Whether or not conceived as having ultimately repented, Nimrod remained in Jewish and Islamic tradition an emblematic (전형적인, 상징적인) evil person, an archetype of an idolater and a tyrannical king. In rabbinical writings up to the present, he is almost invariably referred to as "Nimrod the Evil" (נמרוד הרשע)"

The story of Abraham's confrontation with Nimrod did not remain within the confines of learned writings and religious treatises, but also conspicuously influenced popular culture. A notable example is "Quando el Rey Nimrod" ("When King Nimrod"), one of the most well-known folksongs in Ladino (the Judeo-Spanish language), apparently written during the reign of King Alfonso X of Castile. Beginning with the words: "When King Nimrod went out to the fields/ Looked at the heavens and at the stars/He saw a holy light in the Jewish quarter/A sign that Abraham, our father, was about to be born", the song gives a poetic account of the persecutions perpetrated (저지르다) by the cruel Nimrod and the miraculous birth and deeds of the savior Abraham.^[70]

Text of the Midrash Rabba version

The following version of the Abraham vs. Nimrod confrontation appears in the Midrash Rabba, a major compilation of Jewish Scriptural exegesis. The part relating to Genesis, in which this appears (Chapter 38, 13), is considered to date from the sixth century.

נטלו ומסרו לנמרוד. אמר לו: עבוד לאש. אמר לו אברהם: ואעבוד למים, שמכבים את האש? אמר לו נמרוד: עבוד למים! אמר לו: אם כך, אעבוד לענן, שנושא את המים? אמר לו: עבוד לענן! אמר לו: אם כך, אעבוד לרוח, שמפזרת עננים? אמר לו: עבוד לרוח! אמר לו: ונעבוד לבן אדם, שסובל הרוחות? אמר לו: מילים אתה מכביר, אני איני משתחוה אלא לאוּר - הרי אני משליכך בתוכו, ויבא אלוה שאתה משתחוה לו ויצילך הימנו! היה שם הרן עומד. אמר: מה נפשך, אם ינצח אברהם - אומַר 'משל אברהם אני', ואם ינצח נמרוד - אומַר 'משל נמרוד אני'. כיון שירד אברהם לכבשן האש וניצול, אמרו לו: משל מי אתה? אמר להם: משל אברהם אני! נטלוהו והשליכוהו לאור, ונחמרו בני מעיו ויצא ומת על פני תרח אביו. וכך נאמר: וימת הרן על פני תרח אביו. (בראשית רבה ל"ח, יג)	(...) He [Abraham] was given over to Nimrod. [Nimrod] told him: Worship the Fire! Abraham said to him: Shall I then worship the water, which puts off the fire! Nimrod told him: Worship the water! [Abraham] said to him: If so, shall I worship the cloud, which carries the water? [Nimrod] told him: Worship the cloud! [Abraham] said to him: If so, shall I worship the wind, which scatters the clouds? [Nimrod] said to him: Worship the wind! [Abraham] said to him: And shall we worship the human, who withstands the wind? Said [Nimrod] to him: You pile words upon words, I bow to none but the fire - in it shall I throw you, and let the God to whom you bow come and save you from it! Haran [Abraham's brother] was standing there. He said [to himself]: what shall I do? If Abraham wins, I shall say: "I am of Abraham's [followers]", if Nimrod wins I shall say "I am of Nimrod's [followers]". When Abraham went into the furnace and survived, Haran was asked: "Whose [follower] are you?" and he answered: "I am Abraham's!". [Then] they took him and threw him into the furnace, and his belly opened and he died and predeceased Terach, his father. [The Bible, Genesis 11:28, mentions Haran predeceasing Terach, but gives no details.]

Historical interpretations

Historians and mythographers have long tried to find links between Nimrod and attested historical figures. No king named Nimrod is to be found anywhere in the ancient and extensive Mesopotamian records, including the Assyrian King List, nor the king lists of the Sumerians, Akkadian Empire, Babylonia or Chaldea.

Nimrod as Euechoios · Euechoros · Enmerkar

The Christian Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea as early as the early 4th century, noting that the Chaldean historian Berossus in the 3rd century BC had stated that the first king after the flood was Euechoios of Chaldea, identified him with Nimrod. George Syncellus (c. 800) also had access to Berossus, and he too identified Euechoios with the biblical Nimrod.

More recently, Sumerologists have suggested [the same identifiation] additionally connecting both this Euechoios, and the king of Babylon and grandfather of Gilgamos who appears in the oldest copies of Aelian (c. 200 AD) as Euechoros, with the name of the founder of Uruk known from cuneiform sources as Enmerkar.^[71]

Nimrod as Lord (Ni) of Marad

J.D.Prince, in 1920 also suggested a possible link between the Lord (Ni) of Marad and Nimrod.

Nimrod as Lugal-Banda

He (J.D.Prince) mentioned how Dr. Kraeling was now inclined to connect Nimrod historically with Lugal-Banda, a mythological king mentioned in Poebel, Historical Texts, 1914, whose seat was at the city Marad.^[72] This is supported by Theodore Jacobson in 1989, writing on "Lugalbanda and Ninsuna".^[73]

Nimrod as Ninurta

According to Ronald Hendel the name Nimrod is probably a polemical distortion of Ninurta, who had cult centers in Babel and Calah, and was a patron god of the Neo-Assyrian kings.^[74]

Nimrod as Marduk

Marduk (Merodach), has been suggested as a possible archetype for Nimrod, especially at the beginning of the 20th century. ^{[출처 필요]}

Nimrod as Tukulti-Ninurta I

Nimrod's imperial ventures described in Genesis may be based on the conquests of the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (Dalley et al., 1998, p. 67). Julian Jaynes also indicates Tukulti-Ninurta I as the origin for Nimrod.^[75]

Nimrod as Ninus

Alexander Hislop, in his tract The Two Babylons (Chapter 2, Section II, Sub-Section I) decided that Nimrod was to be identified with Ninus, who according to Greek legend was a Mesopotamian king and husband of Semiramis (see below);

Nimrod as a whole host of deities throughout the Mediterranean world

[Nimrod was identified] with a whole host of deities throughout the Mediterranean world,

Nimrod as Zoroaster

and [Nimrod was identified] with the Persian Zoroaster.

The identification with Ninus follows that of the Clementine Recognitions; the one with Zoroaster, that of the Clementine Homilies, both works part of Clementine literature.^[76]

Nimrod as Asar · Baal · Dumuzi · Osiris · Enmerkar

David Rohl, like Hislop, identified Nimrod with a complex of Mediterranean deities; among those he picked were Asar, Baal, Dumuzi and Osiris. In Rohl's theory, Enmerkar the founder of Uruk was the original inspiration for Nimrod, because the story of Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta (see:^[77]) bears a few similarities to the legend of Nimrod and the Tower of Babel, and because the -KAR in Enmerkar means "hunter". Additionally, Enmerkar is said to have had ziggurats built in both Uruk and Eridu, which Rohl postulates was the site of the original Babel.

Nimrod as Belus

George Rawlinson believed Nimrod was Belus based on the fact Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions bear the names inscriptions Bel-Nimrod or Bel-Nibru.^[78] The word Nibru comes from a root meaning to 'pursue' or to make 'one flee', and as Rawlinson pointed out not only does this closely resemble Nimrod’s name but it also perfectly fits the description of Nimrod in Genesis 10: 9 as a great hunter. The Belus-Nimrod equation or link is also found in many old works such as Moses of Chorene and the Book of the Bee.^[79]

Nimrod as a king of the first dynasty or Uruk

Joseph Poplicha wrote in 1929 about the identification of Nimrod of [a king of Kingdom of Eanna] in the first dynasty or Uruk^[80]

Nimrod as Sargon the Great

Because another of the cities said to have been built by Nimrod was Accad, an older theory, proposed by 1910,^[81] connects him with Sargon the Great, grandfather of Naram-Sin, since, according to the Sumerian king list, that king first built Agade (Akkad). Sargon was known from archaeology by 1860, and for some time remained the earliest-known Mesopotamian ruler. The assertion of the king list that it was Sargon who built Akkad has since been called into question, however, with the discovery of inscriptions mentioning the place in the reigns of some of Sargon's predecessors, such as kings Enshakushanna and Lugal-Zage-Si of Uruk. Moreover, Sargon was credited with founding Babylon in the Babylonian Chronicle (ABC 19:51), another city (Babel) attributed to Nimrod in Genesis. However, a different tablet (ABC 20:18-19) suggests that Sargon merely "dug up the dirt of the pit" of the original Babylon, and rebuilt it in its later location fronting Akkad.

Nimrod as Sargon the Great · Naram-Sin

Yigal Levin (2002) suggests that Nimrod was a recollection of Sargon of Akkad and of his grandson Naram-Sin, with the name "Nimrod" derived from the latter.^[82]

Nimrod as one of the founders of Masonry

Nimrod figures in some very early versions of the history of Freemasonry, where he was said to have been one of the fraternity's founders. According to the Encyclopedia of Freemasonry: The legend of the Craft in the Old Constitutions refers to Nimrod as one of the founders of Masonry. Thus in the York MS., No. 1, we read: "At ye making of ye toure of Babell there was a Masonrie first much esteemed of, and the King of Babilon yt called Nimrod was a Mason himself and loved well Masons." However, he does not figure in the current rituals.

Nimrod as Nyyrikki

The demon Nyyrikki, figuring in the Finnish Kalevala as a helper of Lemminkäinen, is associated with Nimrod by some researchers and linguists.^[83]

Literature

In the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri (written 1308-21), Nimrod is a figure in the Inferno. Nimrod is portrayed as a giant (which was common in the Medieval period) and is found with the other giants Ephialtes, Antaeus, Briareus, Tityos, Typhon and the other unnamed giants chained up on the outskirts (변두리) of Hell's Circle of Treachery (배반). His only line is "Raphèl maí amèche zabí almi", an unintelligible statement which serves to accuse himself.^[84]

Idiom

In 15th-century English, "Nimrod" had come to mean "tyrant". Coined in 20th-century American English, the term is now commonly used to mean "dimwitted (우둔한) or stupid fellow", a usage first recorded in 1932 and popularized by the cartoon character Bugs Bunny, who sarcastically (풍자적으로) refers to the hunter Elmer Fudd as "nimrod",^[85]^[86] possibly as an ironic connection between "mighty hunter" and "poor little Nimrod", i.e. Fudd.^[87]

See also

Nimrod Fortress

References

The Legacy of Mesopotamia; Stephanie Dalley et al. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998)
Noah's Curse: The Biblical Justification of American Slavery; Stephen R. Haynes (NY, Oxford University Press, 2002)
"Nimrod before and after the Bible" K. van der Toorn; P. W. van der Horst, The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 83, No. 1. (Jan., 1990), pp. 1–29

External links

Nimrod, entry in the Jewish Encyclopedia
WebBible entry
Against World Powers: A Study of the Judeo-Christian Struggle in History and Prophecy - Modern Christian writings which follow David Rohl's view on the legends of Nimrod. Another page from this site summarizes Rohl's theory of Nimrod and Enmerkar

오리온은 님로드의 여러 다른 이름 가운데 하나로, 추론이 아닌 전통과 사실이 문제되는 유일한 경우이다[편집]

Orion is almost the only one of these names (즉, 님로드 혹은 이 유형의 다른 이들의 여러 이름) whereof (무엇[어떤 것]에 대해) the application to him is matter of tradition and fact, and not of inductive comparison.

오리온과 님로드에 대한 여러 원천문서의 진술들[편집]

구약성경에 따르면 오리온 즉 님로드는 son of Cush son of Ham이다[편집]

Scripture relates that he was the son of Cush son of Ham;

Paschal Chronicle의 모순된 언급[편집]

with which (즉 구약성경) the Paschal³⁾ or Alexandrine Chronicle agrees, saying that,

"Chus AEthiops was son of Cham, and that from him came Nembrod the Huntsman and Giant, the AEthiopian, from whom were the Mysians... He taught the Assyrians to worship fire."

³⁾ p. 28. 29. ed. Paris. 1688.

But this work (즉, Paschal Chronicle) is in several places contradictory, and must have been interpolated long after its original composition; presently afterwards it says⁴⁾,

"Chus AEthiops of the tribe of Shem, begot Nembrod the giant, who founded Babylonia, who, as the Persians say, was deified and became that star in the heavens which they call Orion. This Nembrod first taught people how to hunt wild animals for food, and was the first great man among the Persians."

⁴⁾ p. 36.

There may be reason to think that the errour here is not accidental, but arises from a wish to conciliate (달래다, 회유하다) to this great apostate the prophecy of Noah in favour [Page B2] [Page 4] of Shem.

Mysians (Mysi, Μυσοί) were the inhabitants of Mysia, a region in northwestern Asia Minor.

Origins according to ancient authors

Their first mention is by Homer, in his list of Trojans allies in the Iliad, and according to whom the Mysians fought in the Trojan War on the side of Troy, under the command of Chromis and Ennomus the Augur, and were lion-hearted spearmen who fought with their bare hands.^[88]

Herodotus in his Histories wrote that the Mysians were brethren of the Carians and the Lydians, originally Lydian colonists in their country, and as such, they had the right to worship alongside their relative nations in the sanctuary dedicated to the Carian Zeus in Mylasa.^[89] He also mentions a movement of Mysians and associated peoples from Asia into Europe still earlier than the Trojan War, wherein the Mysians and Teucrians had crossed the Bosphorus into Europe and, after conquering all of Thrace, pressed forward till they came to the Ionian Sea, while southward they reached as far as the river Peneus.^[90] Herodotus adds an account and description of later Mysians who fought in Darius' army.

Strabo in his Geographica informs that, according to his sources, the Mysians in accordance with their religion abstained from eating any living thing, including from their flocks, and that they used as food honey and milk and cheese.^[91] Citing the historian Xanthus, he also reports that the name of the people was derived from the Lydian name for the oxya tree.

Mysian language

Main article: Mysian language

Little is known about the Mysian language. Strabo noted that their language was, in a way, a mixture of the Lydian and Phrygian languages. As such, the Mysian language could be a language of the Anatolian group. However, a passage in Athenaeus suggests that the Mysian language was akin to the barely attested Paeonian language of Paeonia, north of Macedon.

A short inscription which could be in Mysian and which dates from between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC was found in Üyücek, near Kütahya, and seems to include Indo-European words, but it has not been deciphered.^[92]

See also

Chronicon Paschale ("the Paschal Chronicle, also Chronicum Alexandrinum or Constantinopolitanum, or Fasti Siculi) is the conventional name of a 7th-century Greek Christian chronicle of the world. Its name comes from its system of chronology based on the Christian paschal cycle; its Greek author named it "Epitome of the ages from Adam the first man to the 20th year of the reign of the most August Heraclius."

The Chronicon Paschale follows earlier chronicles. For the years 600 to 627 the author writes as a contemporary historian - that is, through the last years of emperor Maurice, the reign of Phocas, and the first seventeen years of the reign of Heraclius.

Like many chroniclers, the author of this popular account relates anecdotes, physical descriptions of the chief personages (which at times are careful portraits), extraordinary events such as earthquakes and the appearance of comets, and links Church history with a supposed Biblical chronology. Sempronius Asellio points out the difference in the public appeal and style of composition which distinguished the chroniclers (Annales) from the historians (Historia) of the Eastern Roman Empire.

The "Chronicon Paschale" is a huge compilation, attempting a chronological list of events from the creation of Adam. The principal manuscript, the 10th-century Codex Vaticanus græcus 1941, is damaged at the beginning and end and stops short at 627. The Chronicle proper is preceded by an introduction containing reflections on Christian chronology and on the calculation of the Paschal (Easter) cycle. The so-called 'Byzantine' or 'Roman' era (which continued in use in Greek Orthodox Christianity until the end of Turkish rule as the 'Julian calendar') was adopted in the Chronicum as the foundation of chronology; in accordance with which the date of the creation is given as the 21 March 5507.

The author identifies himself as a contemporary of the Emperor Heraclius (610-641), and was possibly a cleric attached to the suite of the œcumenical Patriarch Sergius. The work was probably written during the last ten years of the reign of Heraclius.

The chief authorities used were: Sextus Julius Africanus; the consular Fasti; the Chronicle and Church History of Eusebius; John Malalas; the Acta Martyrum; the treatise of Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia (the old Salamis) in Cyprus (fl. 4th century), on Weights and Measures.

Editions

L. Dindorf (1832) in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, with du Cange's preface and commentary
J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, vol. 92.
See also C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studien der alten Geschichte (1895)
H. Gelzer, Sextus Julius Africanus und die byzantinische Chronographie, ii. I (1885)
J. van der Hagen, Observationes in Heraclii imperatoris methodum paschalem (1736, but still considered indispensable)
E. Schwarz in Pauly–Wissowa, Realencyclopädie, iii., Pt. 2 (1899)
C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).

Partial English translation

Chronicon Paschale 284–628 AD, translated by Michael Whitby and Mary Whitby (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1989) ISBN 0-85323-096-X

Sources

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, 편집. (1911). 〈Chronicon Paschale〉. 《Encyclopædia Britannica》 11판. Cambridge University Press.
본 문서에는 현재 퍼블릭 도메인에 속한 1913년 가톨릭 백과사전의 "Chronicon Paschale" 항목을 기초로 작성된 내용이 포함되어 있습니다.

External links

Chronicon Paschale (Catholic Encyclopedia)
Paschal Chronicle (1911 Encyclopædia Britannica)
Chronicon Paschale (Olympiads 112–187)
1832 Dindorf edition at Google Books: Vol.1; Vol. 2.

Revelations of Methodius의 진술: 님로드는 God의 영감을 받았다[편집]

There is a book to be found in some libraries, called the Revelations of Methodius, bishop of Tyre. The authour of which hath the impudence (뻔뻔스러움) to deliver the following statement.

"In the year of the world 2100, there was born unto Noah in his own likeness a fourth son, Ionithus; and in 2300 Noah gave him his portion and sent him into the land of Ethan. In 2690 Noah died; and then the people began building the Tower in the plain of Sennaar, and the confusion and dispersion came to pass. But Ionithus held the entering-in of Ethan, to the sea, which region is called Heliochora, because the sun riseth there. He received wisdom from God and invented astronomy; and Nemroth the giant, a man instructed in many things by God, went to Ionithus, and learned from him under what influences of the stars he was to begin his reign. He was son of Chus, son of Cham."

In this story Nimrod is made out to be a man inspired by God himself, and instructed in his ambitious counsels by another prophet of the Lord, Ionithus, whose name is however formed from Ion, the second part of this very name Or-Ion.

The Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius is a 7th-century apocalypse that shaped the eschatological imagination of Christendom throughout the Middle Ages. The work was written in Syriac in the late 7th century, in reaction to the Islamic conquest of the Near East, and is falsely attributed to the 4th-century Church Father Methodius of Olympus. It depicts many familiar Christian eschatological themes: the rise and rule of Antichrist, the invasions of Gog and Magog, and the tribulations that precede the end of the world.

A new element, probably adopted from the Tiburtine Sibyl, was a Messiah-like Last Roman Emperor, who would be a central figure in apocalyptic literature until the end of the medieval period. It was translated into Greek soon after its composition, and thence into Latin (by the eighth century), Slavonic, Russian, Armenian, and Arabic.

Its precise date is difficult to ascertain; dates proposed by recent historians fall within the range 644 - 691 AD (Palmer 1993:225).

See also

Tiburtine Sibyl

References

Alexander, Paul J. "The Medieval Legend of the Last Roman Emperor and Its Messianic Origin". Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 41. (1978), pp. 1–15
McGinn, Bernard "Visions of the End: Apocalyptic Traditions in the Middle Ages" (NY, Columbia University Press, 1998), pp. 70–76
Hoyland, Robert G. "Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam" (Princeton: Darwin Press 1997).
Palmer, Andrew; Sebastian Brock; and Robert Hoyland. The Seventh Century in the West-Syrian Chronicles: including two seventh-century Syriac apocalyptic texts. (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press 1993)
Tolan, John V. Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination (NY, Columbia University Press, 2002)

다른 연대기의 진술: 님로드는 Heber the Shemite 태생이다[편집]

However, in another Chronicle⁵⁾, we read, from Heber the Shemite came Rehu, Peleg, and Irari the father of Nimrod, who learned astrology from Ionitus son of Noah, and sought to have obtained the sovereignty of the house of Shem, and upon their refusal went over to the children of Cham, and, being accepted by them, began the building of Babel.

⁵⁾ Gothofred. Viterb. part 3. p, 86. 87.

Peter Comestor가 인용한 진술: Nimrod was son of Hiron, son of Shem[편집]

Peter Comestor⁶⁾ had, again, read a different text of Methodius, and cites from him, that Nimrod was son of Hiron, son of Shem, and derived his instruction from the prophecies of Ionithus son of Noah.

⁶⁾ Hist Scholast. xv. a.

Petrus (Peter) Comestor was a French theological writer (died c. 1178).

Biography

Born in Troyes, he was first attached to the Church of Notre-Dame in that city and habitually signed himself as "Presbyter Trecensis". Before 1148 he became dean of the chapter and received a benefice in 1148. About 1160 he formed one of the Chapter of Notre-Dame at Paris, and about the same year he replaced Eudes (Odon) as chancellor. At the same time he had charge of the theological school.

It was at Paris that Peter Comestor composed and certainly finished his Historia Scholastica; he dedicated it to the Bishop of Sens, Guillaume aux Blanches Mains (1169–76). Pope Alexander III ordered Cardinal Peter of St. Chrysogonus to allow the chancellor Peter to exact a small fee on conferring the licence to teach, but this authorization was altogether personal. A short time afterwards the same cardinal mentioned the name of Peter to Alexander III, as among the three most cultured men of France.

The surname of "Comestor" ("devourer"), given to Peter during his life, also demonstrates the esteem in which his learning was held: he was a great bookworm. He often refers to his surname in his sermons and in the epitaph said to be composed by him: "Petrus eram ... dictusque comestor, nunc comedor." ("Peter was I... and called the devourer: now I am eaten.") He afterwards withdrew to St. Victor's Abbey, Paris and made profession of canonical life.

Petrus Comestor died in Paris around 1178. He was buried at St. Victor's, and the necrology of the canons mentions him as one of themselves (21 October).

Works

His works include commentaries on the Gospels, allegories on Holy Scripture, and a moral commentary on St. Paul, all of which are as yet unpublished.

His Historia Scholastica is a kind of sacred history composed for students. The author begins the sacred narrative at the Creation, and continues it to the end of the incidents related in the Acts of the Apostles; all the books of the Bible are contained therein, except those whose nature is purely didactic, the Book of Wisdom, the Psalms, the Prophets, the Epistles, etc. The discourses are abbreviated.

He borrows frequently from profane authors, especially from Flavius Josephus for the beginning of the Gospels, and very often the test is as though paraphrased in a commentary where all data, cosmological and physical, philosophical, theological, geographical, etc., are found. There are numerous inaccuracies and fables. The work consists of twenty books and often small "additions" supply geographical or etymological appendixes at the end of the chapters. This Biblical history met with great success, as witness the large number of manuscripts, the mention of his name in all the libraries of the Middle Ages, the lists of classical books for the universities and schools, the quotations and the eulogies with which the name of its author is everywhere accompanied (cf. the canonist Huguccio, about 1190) and its numerous translations, most of all the Bible Historiale in French. In the fifteenth century, the work was still in great demand, as can be seen by the editions made before 1500 of the Latin text, or of the French translation.^[93] Migne ^[94] reproduces the Madrid edition of 1699.

The sermons of Peter Comestor have been left to us in numerous manuscripts, often under other names, but the complete and continued series has not yet been published. A series of fifty-one sermons was placed wrongly under the name of Peter of Blois and printed among his works;^[95] some figure also in the works of Hildebert de Mans.^[96] The sermon in which the word "transubstantiation" occurs, the 93rd (not 73rd), is not Hildebert's but Peter Comestor's; the word however is already found in Roland Bandinelli (the later Pope Alexander III) before 1150.

Other collections, like that of the 114 sermons copied at St. Victor before 1186, are still unpublished, more than twelve manuscripts are in the libraries of Paris, and all has not yet been unravelled in this assortment. As a preacher, Peter was subtle and pedantic in his style, in keeping with the taste of his time and of his audience of scholars and professors assembled around the pulpit of the chancellor. The sermons attributed to him during his stay at St. Victor are simple in style, instructive, and natural in tone. Also some verses are attributed to Peter Comestor and a collection of maxims entitled Pancrisis, perhaps that which still exists in a manuscript of Troyes.

Editions

Petris Comestoris Scolastica Historia: Liber Genesis. Edited by Agneta Sylwan. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, Pp. xc + 227. (Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis, 191).

Peter Comestor의 인용 텍스트에 대한 비판: an attempt to make it appear, as if the "God of Shem" was Nimrod's god - Manichees의 vile effusion[편집]

This is an attempt to make it appear, as if the "God of Shem" was Nimrod's god; and also to dissemble (숨기다) the name of the infamous man from whom he really derived his lore, by inventing a new son (즉 Hiron) for Noah, or else a new title for Cham (즉 Hiron). It is to be observed, that no such name as Ionithus [Page 5] appears in the Greek copy of the Revelations; but Shem is said to have made a prophecy to Nimrod; and the Greek copy is also deficient in several other curious passages that are in the Latin.

Both, however, were written subsequent to the establishment of the German empire of Rome. I cannot believe that the Revelations were the work of Methodius, who was patriarch of Constantinople from 842 to 847, or of any known or respectable person; but that they are the vile (비도덕적인, 절대 용납할 수 없는) effusion (유출물) of some Manichees, intended to promote the work of deception among their followers, and decorated with the name of that venerable father, Methodius, Bishop of Tyre, because he was also bishop of the Lycian Olympus, a remarkable seat of the Magian⁷⁾ superstition to which they were addicted, and of Patara in Lycia;

⁷⁾ Maxim. Tyr. Diss. 8 p. 143. Reiske. See Method. Revel, ed. Brant. 4to. 1515, pages not numbered; and in Greek, in Grynaei Orthodox-ographa. torn. 1. p. 93. Basil 1569.

but the Manichees were known in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by the name of Patarini; so that episcopus (주교직의) Patarensis or Pataraeus was a good equivocation (얼버무리기) for High-priest of the Manichees.

I think I may fasten this foolish and wicked production (즉, Revelations of Methodius), of which I see (but will not here tarry (지체하다) to explain) the real drift (취지) and intention, upon the Manichaeans of Thoulouse, the noted Albigenses, by this token, that it calls Tubal-Cain the last of the Cainites,

Thou-lousiel; 'lovpi)\ xou ?ouAotxrnjA.

It is hard to imagine a more positive proof, from internal evidence.

Methodius or Methodios may refer to:

Methodius of Olympus (d. 311), Christian bishop, church father, and martyr
Methodios I of Constantinople (c. 790-847), patriarch of Constantinople
Saint Methodius of Thessaloniki (826-885), Byzantine Greek archbishop of Great Moravia and scholar, associated with Cyril
Methodios Anthrakites (1660–1736), Greek scholar, priest and director of the Gioumeios and Epiphaneios Schools in Ioannina
Metodyj Trochanovskij (1885–1947), Polish activist
Metropolitan Methodios (Tournas) of Boston (born 1946), the spiritual leader of the Greek Orthodox Metropolis of Boston
Methodius Buslaev, fictional character from Dmitri Yemets's book series
Methodius (Berat), Berat's archbishop, who in 1743 renovated the Ardenica Monastery
St. Methodios Faith and Heritage Center, a camp run by the Greek Orthodox Metropolis of Boston located in the town of Hopkinton, New Hampshire, United States

The Church Father and Saint Methodius of Olympus (died c. 311) was a Christian bishop, ecclesiastical author, and martyr.

Life

Few reports have survived on the life of this first systematic opponent of Origen; even these short accounts present many difficulties. Eusebius does not mention him in his Church History, probably because he opposed various theories of Origen. We are indebted to Saint Jerome for the earliest accounts of him.^[97] According to him, Methodius was Bishop of Olympos in Lycia and afterwards Bishop of Tyre. The latter statement is not reliable; no later Greek author knows anything of his being Bishop of Tyre; and according to Eusebius,^[98] Tyrannio was Bishop of Tyre during the persecutions of Diocletian and died a martyr; after the persecution Paulinus was elected bishop of the city. Jerome further states that Methodius suffered martyrdom at the end of the last persecution, i.e., under Maximinus Daia (311). Although he then adds, "that some assert", that this may have happened under Decius and Valerian at Chalcis, this statement (ut alii affirmant), adduced even by him as uncertain, is unlikely. Various attempts have been made to clear up the error concerning the mention of Tyre as a subsequent bishopric of Methodius; it is possible that he was transported to Tyre during the persecution and died there.

Works

Methodius had a comprehensive philosophical education, and was an important theologian as well as a prolific and polished author. Chronologically, his works can only be assigned in a general way to the end of the third and the beginning of the 4th century. He became of special importance in the history of theological literature, in that he combated various views of the great Alexandrian, Origen. He particularly attacked his doctrine that man's body at the resurrection is not the same body as he had in life, as well as his idea of the world's eternity. Nevertheless he recognized the great services of Origen in ecclesiastical theology.

Like Origen, he is strongly influenced by Plato's philosophy, and uses to a great extent the allegorical explanation of Scripture. Of his numerous works only one has come down to us complete in a Greek text: the dialogue on virginity, under the title Symposium, or on Virginity (Symposion e peri hagneias).^[99] In the dialogue, composed with reference to Plato's Symposium, he depicts a festive meal of ten virgins in the garden of Arete, at which each of the participators extols Christian virginity and its sublime excellence. It concludes with a hymn on Jesus as the Bridegroom of the Church. Larger fragments are preserved of several other writings in Greek; we know of other works from old versions in Slavonic, though some are abbreviated.

The following works are in the form of dialogue:

On Free Will (peri tou autexousiou), an important treatise attacking the Gnostic view of the origin of evil and in proof of the freedom of the human will
On the Resurrection (Aglaophon e peri tes anastaseos), in which the doctrine that the same body that man has in life will be awakened to incorruptibility at the resurrection is specially put forward in opposition to Origen.

While large portions of the original Greek text of both these writings are preserved, we have only Slavonic versions of the four following shorter treatises:

De vita, on life and rational action, which exhorts in particular to contentedness in this life and to the hope of the life to come
De cibis, on the Jewish dietary laws, and on the young cow, which is mentioned in Leviticus, with allegorical explanation of the Old Testament food-legislation and the red cow (Num., xix)
De lepra, on leprosy, to Sistelius, a dialogue between Eubulius (Methodius) and Sistelius on the mystic sense of the Old Testament references to lepers (Lev., xiii)
De sanguisuga, on the leech in Proverbs (Prov., xxx, 15 sq.) and on the text, "the heavens show forth the glory of God" (Ps. xviii, 2).

Of other writings, no longer extant, Jerome mentions (loc. cit.) a voluminous work against Porphyry, the Neoplatonist who had published a book against Christianity; a treatise on the Pythonissa directed against Origen, commentaries on Genesis and the Canticle of Canticles. Other authors attributed a work On the Martyrs, and a dialogue Xenon to Methodius; in the latter he opposes the doctrine of Origen on the eternity of the world. Gregory Abu'l Faraj attribute to Methodius some kind of work dealing with the patriarchs.^[100]

The 7th-century Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius is falsely attributed to him. His feast day is September 18. Among the editions of his works are: P.G., XVIII; Jahn, S. Methodii opera et S. Methodius platonizans (Halle, 1865); Bonwetsch, Methodius von Olympus: I, Schriften (Leipzig, 1891).

Doctrines

Virginity of Jesus Christ

Methodius taught that Jesus Christ remained a virgin His whole life as an example for men:

"What then did the Lord, the Truth and the Light, accomplish on coming down to the world? He preserved His flesh incorrupt in virginity with which he had adorned it. And so let us too, if we are to come to the likeness of God, endeavor to aspire to the virginity of Christ." (Symposium 1.5)

Further reading

Patterson, L. G. (Lloyd George), Methodius of Olympus: Divine Sovereignty, Human Freedom, and Life in Christ (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1997).

St. Methodios I or Methodius I (Μεθόδιος Α΄), (788/800 – June 14, 847) was Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from March 4, 843 to June 14, 847. He was born in Syracuse and died in Constantinople. His feast day is celebrated on June 14.

Life

Born to wealthy parents, Methodios was sent as a young man to Constantinople to continue his education and hopefully attain an appointment at court. But instead he entered a monastery in Bithynia, eventually becoming abbot.

Under the Emperor Leo V the Armenian (813-820) the Iconoclast persecution broke out for the second time. In 815 Methodios went to Rome, perhaps as an envoy of the deposed Patriarch Niκephorοs. Upon his return in 821 he was arrested and exiled as an iconodule by the Iconoclast regime of Emperor Michael II. Ironically, Methodios was released in 829 and assumed a position of importance at the court of the even more fervently iconoclast Emperor Theophilos.

Soon after the death of the emperor, in 843, the influential minister Theoktistos convinced the Empress Mother Theodora, as regent for her two-year-old son Michael III, to permit the restoration of icons by arranging that her dead husband would not be condemned. He then deposed the iconoclast Patriarch John VII Grammatikos and secured the appointment of Methodios as his successor, bringing about the end of the iconoclast controversy. A week after his appointment, accompanied by Theodora, Michael, and Theoktistos, Methodios made a triumphal procession from the church of Blachernae to Hagia Sophia on March 11, 843, restoring the icons to the church. This heralded the restoration of Orthodoxy, and became a holiday in the Eastern Orthodox Church, celebrated every year on the First Sunday of Great Lent, and known as the "Triumph of Orthodoxy".

Throughout his short patriarchate, Methodios tried to pursue a moderate line of accommodation with members of the clergy who were formerly Iconoclasts. This policy was opposed by extremists, primarily the monks of the Stoudios monastery, who demanded that the former Iconoclasts be punished severely as heretics. To rein in the extremists, Methodios was forced to excommunicate and arrest some of the more persevering monks.

Methodios was indeed well-educated; engaged in both copying and writing of manuscripts. His individual works included polemica, hagiographical and liturgical works, sermons and poetry.

동방 기독교
이전 John VII	Patriarch of Constantinople 843–847	이후 Ignatios

References

The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991.
Methodius I article in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1910)
St Methodius the Patriarch of Constantinople Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion

List of German monarchs

This is a list of monarchs who ruled over the German territories of central Europe from the division of the Frankish Empire in 843 (by which a separate Eastern Frankish Kingdom was created), until the end of the Imperial Germany in 1918. It also includes the heads of the various German confederations after the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation in 1806.

Note on titles

The relationship between the title of "king" and "emperor" in the area that is today called Germany is just as complicated as the history and the structure of the Holy Roman Empire itself^{[출처 필요]}. The Kingdom of Germany predates the Empire.^{[출처 필요]}

The Kingdom of Germany started out as the eastern section of the Frankish kingdom, which was split by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The rulers of the eastern area thus called themselves rex Francorum, king of the Franks, and later just rex. A reference to the "Germans," indicating the emergence of a German nation of some sort, did not appear until the eleventh century, when the pope referred to his enemy Henry IV as rex teutonicorum, king of the Teutons, in order to brand him as a foreigner. The kings reacted by consistently using the title rex Romanorum, King of the Romans, to emphasize their universal rule even before becoming emperor. This title remained until the end of the Empire in 1806.^{[출처 필요]}
The Kingdom of Germany was never entirely hereditary; rather, ancestry was only one of the factors that determined the succession of kings. The king was formally elected by the leading nobility in the realm, continuing the Frankish tradition. Gradually the election became the privilege of a group of princes called electors, and the Golden Bull of 1356 formally defined election proceedings.^{[출처 필요]}
In the Middle Ages, the king did not assume the title "emperor" (since 982 the full title had been Imperator Augustus Romanorum, Venerable Emperor of the Romans) until crowned by the pope. He first had to be crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, after which he assumed the title of rex Italiae, King of Italy. After this he would ride on to Rome and be crowned emperor by the pope.^{[출처 필요]}
Maximilian I was the first king to bear the title of emperor-elect. After the failure in 1508 of his attempt to march to Rome and to be crowned by the pope, he had himself proclaimed emperor-elect with papal consent. His successor Charles V also assumed that title after his coronation in 1520 until he was crowned emperor by the pope in 1530. From Ferdinand I onwards, all emperors were merely emperors-elect, although they were normally referred to as emperors. At the same time, chosen successors of the emperors held the title of king of the Romans, if elected by the college of electors during their predecessor's lifetime.^{[출처 필요]}

Kingdom of Germany, 843–1806

German confederations, 1806–1871

Confederation of the Rhine, 1806–1813

German Confederation, 1815–1866

North German Confederation, 1867–1871

German Empire, 1871–1918

Heads of the House of Hohenzollern, 1918-present

See also

The Kingdom of Germany (also referred to as the German Kingdom; Latin Regnum Teutonicum) developed out of the eastern half of the former Carolingian Empire.

Like medieval England and France, it began as "a conglomerate, an assemblage of a number of once separate and independent... gentes [peoples] and regna [kingdoms]."^[101] East Francia was formed in embryo by the Treaty of Verdun in 843, and was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty until 911, after which the kingship was electoral. The initial electors were the rulers of the stem duchies, who generally chose one of their own. After 962, when Otto I was crowned emperor, the kingdom formed the bulk of the Holy Roman Empire, which also included Italy (from 951) and Burgundy (after 1032).

The term rex teutonicorum (king of the Germans) first came into use in the chancery of Pope Gregory VII during the Investiture Controversy (late 11th century), perhaps as a polemical tool against the Emperor Henry IV.^[102] In the twelfth century, in order to stress the imperial and transnational character of their office, the emperors began to employ the title rex Romanorum (king of the Romans) on their election (by the prince-electors, seven German bishops and noblemen). Distinct titulature for Germany, Italy and Burgundy, which traditionally had their own courts, laws, and chanceries,^[103] gradually dropped from use. After the Reichsreform and Reformation settlement, the German part of the Holy Roman Empire was divided into Reichskreise (imperial circles), which effectively defined Germany against imperial Italy and the Kingdom of Bohemia.^[104] There are nevertheless relatively few references to a German realm and an instability in the term's use.^[105]

The Holy Roman Empire (Imperium Romanum Sacrum, Heiliges Römisches Reich, Sacro Romano Impero, Svatá říše římská, Sveto rimsko cesarstvo, Heilige Roomse Rijk, Saint-Empire romain germanique) was a complex political union of territories in Central Europe existing from 962 to 1806.^[106]^[107]

The empire grew out of East Francia, a primary division of the Frankish Empire, and explicitly proclaimed itself the continuation of the Western Roman Empire under the doctrine of translatio imperii ("transfer of rule" via a succession of singular rulers vested with supreme power).^[108] Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned as emperor by Pope Leo III in 800, restoring the title in the West after more than three centuries.^[109] The title was passed in a desultory manner during the decline and fragmentation of the Carolingian dynasty, eventually falling into abeyance.^[110] The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor (Imperator Romanus Sacer),^[111] beginning an unbroken line of emperors running for over eight centuries.^[110]

The territories making up the Empire lay predominantly in Central Europe. At its peak in 1050, under Emperor Henry III, it included the Kingdom of Germany, the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Kingdom of Burgundy.^[112]^[113] The Holy Roman Empire never achieved the extent of political unification formed in France, evolving instead into a decentralized, limited elective monarchy composed of hundreds of smaller sub-units, principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities, and other domains.^[114]^[115] The power of the emperor was limited, and while the various princes, lords and kings of the Empire were his vassals and subjects, they possessed an extent of privileges that gave them de facto sovereignty within their territories.

The last Holy Roman Emperor was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.^[115]

The pataria was an eleventh-century religious movement in the Archdiocese of Milan in northern Italy, aimed at reforming the clergy and ecclesiastic government in the province and supportive of Papal sanctions against simony and clerical marriage. Those involved in the movement were called patarini (also patarines or patarenes, from singular patarino), a word chosen by their opponents, which means "ragpickers", from Milanese patee "rags". In general the patarini were tradesmen motivated by personal piety. The conflict between the patarini and their supporters and the partisans of the simoniacal archbishops eventually led to civil war by the mid-1070s, the Great Saxon revolt. It received its most dependable contemporary chronicler in Arnulf of Milan.

The pataria was partially the result of church reform movements like the Peace and Truce of God and partially of the social situation in Milan. The influence of southern French movements, such as the Peace and Truce, affected the pataria. The subsequent popularity of the Cathar movement in Milan during the twelfth century was resultant of the pataria. The chief targets of the patarini were the rich, saecular, aristocratic landowners and the simoniacal and nicolaitan clergy. They contested the ancient rights of the cathedral clergy of Milan and supported the Gregorian reforms. They joined with the lesser clergy in opposition to the practices of simony and of clerical marriage and concubinage. The morals of the clergy were attacked, too, as was monastic discipline. The contrast between the impoverished lesser clergy and the magnates of the Church resurfaced as a point of contention.

The archbishop Guido da Velate was a particular victim of the patarini. On the death in 1045 of the warrior and prince-bishop Ariberto da Intimiano, the Milanese requested the Emperor Henry III, who controlled the election of bishops in his realms, to choose from among four candidates deemed retti ed onesti (upright and honest): Anselmo da Baggio, Arialdo da Carimate, Landolfo Cotta, and Attone. The Emperor's choice, however, fell upon the thoroughly worldly Guido, known for his support of the practice of clerical marriage and concubinage, which was generally accepted in rural areas and which was now being given the name "nicolaism", recalling a passage in the Book of Revelation (2:6, 14–15).

Guido, however, did not fulfill his vows to fight simony and was forced to resign. The patarini initially protested the abuse by their refusal to accept communion at the hands of priests with unofficial wives or concubines. Some churches were emptied while others were packed with the faithful. The movement formed behind its leaders, the four rejected "upright and honest" priests. To defuse the situation the emperor named Anselmo da Baggio bishop of Lucca, which carried him securely away from Milan, and the archbishop excommunicated the intractable Arialdo da Carimate and Landolfo Cotta.

Following the pontificate of Benedict IX, the papacy too began to sense the urgency of reform and Pope Leo IX condemned both the practice of simony and concubinage among priests. When Landolfo Cotta attempted to present the position of the Milanese patarini before Pope Stephen IX, the archbishop's ruffians caught up with him at Piacenza and came near to killing him. A second attack in 1061 was successful. In 1060 Pope Nicholas II sent a delegation to Milan under the direction of Peter Damiani and Anselmo da Baggio, and calm was restored to the city.

After Landolfo's death, his brother Erlembald stepped in to take his place. He transferred the movement from one primarily socioreligious to principally military. The pataria at this moment received the support of Popes Alexander II and Gregory VII while the Ambrosian see fell into schism and war until the archiepiscopate of Anselm III reestablished order.

The Occitan word pataric later became a synonym for Cathar. The wife of the troubadour Raimon Jordan was a reported pataric. There were also rumours, emanating from a Christian prisoner in Alexandria, that the Patarenes had made an alliance with the Muslims against the Crusaders. These rumours captivated Joachim of Fiore, who built on it an apocalyptic theory of the union of the "beast from the sea" and the "beast from the land".

Sources

Goetz, J. "Kritische Beiträge zur Geschichte der Pataria" in AKultG 12/1916, 17-55, 164-194.
Jordan, K. "Pataria" in Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. V, 3.A., 150f.
Jordan, William Chester. Europe in the High Middle Ages. Penguin Books, 2003.
Roll, Eugen. Ketzer zwischen Orient und Okzident: Patarener, Paulikianer, Bogomilen. Mellinger: Stuttgart, 1978. ISBN 3-88069-190-8
Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani. Rome.
Les collections de l'histoire, no. 26, page 26.
Coleman, Edward. “Representative Assemblies in Communal Italy”, in P.S. Barnwell & Marco Mostert (eds.), Political Assemblies in the Early Middle Ages. Turnhout, 2003. 193-210
Cowdrey, H.E.J. Cowdrey. “Archbishop Aribert of Milan”, History 51, 1966. 1-15
Cowdrey. “The Papacy, the Patarenes and the Church of Milan”, Transactions of Royal Historical Society, 5th series, vol. 18, 1968. 25-48
Cushing, Kathleen G. “Events That Led to Sainthood: Sanctity and the Reformers in the Eleventh Century”, in Richard Gameson & Henrietta Leyser (eds.), Belief and Culture in the Middle Ages. Oxford & New York, 2001. 187-96
Patschovsky, Alexander. “Heresy & Society: On the Political Function of Heresy in the Medieval World”, in Caterina Bruschi & Peter Biller (eds.), Texts and the Repression of Medieval Heresy. 23-41
Siegel, Arthur. “Italian Society and the Origins of Eleventh-Century Western Heresy”, in Michael Frassetto (ed.), Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages: Essays on the Work of R.I. Moore. Leiden, 2006. 43-72
Stock, Brian. The Implications of Literacy: Written Languages and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. Princeton, 1983

Catharism (/ˈkæθərɪzəm/; from καθαροί, katharoi, "the pure")^[116] was a Christian dualist movement that thrived in some areas of Southern Europe, particularly northern Italy, northern Spain and southern France, former Occitania and Catalonia, between the 12th and 14th centuries. Cathar beliefs varied between communities because Catharism was initially taught by ascetic priests who had few set guidelines. The Cathars were a direct challenge to the Catholic Church, renouncing its practices and dismissing it outright as the Church of Satan.^[117]

Catharism had its roots in the Paulician movement in Armenia and the Bogomils of Bulgaria, which took influences from the Paulicians. Though the term "Cathar" (/ˈkæθɑːr/) has been used for centuries to identify the movement, whether the movement identified itself with this name is debatable.^[118] In Cathar texts, the terms "Good Men" (Bons Hommes) or "Good Christians" are the common terms of self-identification.^[119] The idea of two Gods or principles, one being good the other evil, was central to Cathar beliefs. The good God was the God of the New Testament and the creator of the spiritual realm as opposed to the bad God who many Cathars identified as Satan creator of the physical world of the Old Testament. All visible matter was created by Satan, it was therefore tainted with sin, this even included the human body. Human souls were thought to be the genderless souls of Angels trapped within the physical creation of Satan cursed to be reincarnated until the Cathar faithful achieved salvation through a ritual called the Consolamentum.^[120] From the beginning of his reign, Pope Innocent III attempted to use diplomacy to end Catharism, but in the year 1208 Innocent's papal legate Pierre de Castelnau was murdered while returning to Rome after preaching the Catholic faith in southern France.^[121] With the option of sending Catholic missionaries and jurists extinguished, Pope Innocent III declared Pierre of Castelnau a martyr and launched the Albigensian Crusade.^[121] ^[122]

Origins

The Cathars' beliefs are unclear but most theories agree they originated in the Byzantine Empire mostly by the trade routes and spread from Bulgaria to the Netherlands and Spain (Catalonia). The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigenses, and they maintained an association with the similar Christian movement of the Bogomils ("Friends of God") of Thrace. "That there was a substantial transmission of ritual and ideas from Bogomilism to Catharism is beyond reasonable doubt."^[123] Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils and the earlier Paulicians as well as the Manicheans and the Christian Gnostics of the first few centuries AD, although, as many scholars, most notably Mark Pegg, have pointed out, it would be erroneous to extrapolate direct, historical connections based on theoretical similarities perceived by modern scholars. St John Damascene, writing in the 8th century AD, also notes of an earlier sect called the "Cathari", in his book On Heresies, taken from the epitome provided by Epiphanius of Salamis in his Panarion. He says of them: "They absolutely reject those who marry a second time, and reject the possibility of penance [that is, forgiveness of sins after baptism]".^[124] These are probably the same Cathari who are mentioned in Canon 8 of the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in the year 325, which states "...[I]f those called Cathari come over [to the faith], let them first make profession that they are willing to communicate [share full communion] with the twice-married, and grant pardon to those who have lapsed..."^[125]

It is likely that we have only a partial view of their beliefs, because the writings of the Cathars were mostly destroyed because of the doctrinal threat perceived by the Papacy;^[126] much of our existing knowledge of the Cathars is derived from their opponents. Conclusions about Cathar ideology continue to be fiercely debated with commentators regularly accusing their opponents of speculation, distortion and bias. There are a few texts from the Cathars themselves which were preserved by their opponents (the Rituel Cathare de Lyon) which give a glimpse of the inner workings of their faith, but these still leave many questions unanswered. One large text which has survived, The Book of Two Principles (Liber de duobus principiis),^[127] elaborates the principles of dualistic theology from the point of view of some of the Albanenses Cathars.^[128]

It is now generally agreed by most scholars that identifiable historical Catharism did not emerge until at least 1143, when the first confirmed report of a group espousing similar beliefs is reported being active at Cologne by the cleric Eberwin of Steinfeld.^[129] A landmark in the "institutional history" of the Cathars was the Council, held in 1167 at Saint-Félix-Lauragais, attended by many local figures and also by the Bogomil papa Nicetas, the Cathar bishop of (northern) France and a leader of the Cathars of Lombardy.

The Cathars were largely a homegrown, Western European/Latin Christian phenomenon, springing up in the Rhineland cities (particularly Cologne) in the mid-12th century, northern France around the same time, and particularly southern France — the Languedoc — and the northern Italian cities in the mid-late 12th century. In the Languedoc and northern Italy, the Cathars would enjoy their greatest popularity, surviving in the Languedoc, in much reduced form, up to around 1325 and in the Italian cities until the Inquisitions of the 1260s–1300s finally rooted them out.^[130]

General beliefs

Cathars, in general, formed an anti-sacerdotal party in opposition to the Church of Rome, protesting against what they perceived to be the moral, spiritual and political corruption of the Church.

G. K. Chesterton, the English Roman Catholic apologist, claimed: "..the medieval system began to be broken to pieces intellectually, long before it showed the slightest hint of falling to pieces morally. The huge early heresies, like the Albigenses, had not the faintest excuse in moral superiority."^[131]

Contemporary reports suggest otherwise, however. St Bernard of Clairvaux, for instance, although opposed to the Cathars, said of them in Sermon 65 on the Song of Songs:

If you question the heretic about his faith, nothing is more Christian; if about his daily converse, nothing more blameless; and what he says he proves by his actions ... As regards his life and conduct, he cheats no one, pushes ahead of no one, does violence to no one. Moreover, his cheeks are pale with fasting; he does not eat the bread of idleness; he labours with his hands and thus makes his living. Women are leaving their husbands, men are putting aside their wives, and they all flock to those heretics! Clerics and priests, the youthful and the adult among them, are leaving their congregations and churches and are often found in the company of weavers of both sexes.^[132]

When Bishop Fulk, a key leader of the anti-Cathar persecutions, excoriated the Languedoc Knights for not pursuing the heretics more diligently, he received the reply:

We cannot. We have been reared in their midst. We have relatives among them and we see them living lives of perfection.^[133]

Sacraments

In contrast to the Church of Rome, the Cathars had but one sacrament, the Consolamentum, or Consolation. This involved a brief spiritual ceremony to remove all sin from the believer and to induct him or her into the next higher level as a Perfect.^[134] Unlike the Roman Catholic sacrament of Penance, the Consolamentum could be taken only once.

Thus it has been alleged that many believers would eventually receive the consolamentum as death drew near, performing the ritual of liberation at a moment when the heavy obligations of purity required of Perfecti would be temporally short. Some of those who received the sacrament of the consolamentum upon their death-beds may thereafter have shunned further food or drink in order to speed death. This has been termed the endura.^[135] It was claimed by some of the Catholic writers that when a Cathar, after receiving the Consolamentum, began to show signs of recovery he or she would be smothered in order to ensure his or her entry into paradise. Other than at such moments of extremis, little evidence exists to suggest this was a common Cathar practice.^[136]

The Cathars also refused the Catholic Sacrament of the eucharist saying that it could not possibly be the body of Christ. They also refused to partake in the practice of Baptism by water. The following two quotes are taken from the Catholic Inquisitor Bernard Gui’s experiences with the Cathar practices and beliefs:

Then they attack and vituperate, in turn, all the sacraments of the Church, especially the sacrament of the eucharist, saying that it cannot contain the body of Christ, for had this been as great as the largest mountain Christians would have entirely consumed it before this. They assert that the host comes from straw, that it passes through the tails of horses, to wit, when the flour is cleaned by a sieve (of horse hair); that, moreover, it passes through the body and comes to a vile end, which, they say, could not happen if God were in it.^[137]

Of baptism, they assert that the water is material and corruptible and is therefore the creation of the evil power, and cannot sanctify the soul, but that the churchmen sell this water out of avarice, just as they sell earth for the burial of the dead, and oil to the sick when they anoint them, and as: they sell the confession of sins as made to the priests.^[137]

Theology

It has been alleged that the Catharist concept of Jesus resembled nontrinitarian modalistic monarchianism (Sabellianism) in the West and adoptionism in the East.^[138]^[139]

Bernard of Clairvaux's biographer and other sources accuse some Cathars of Arianism,^[140]^[141] and some scholars see Cathar Christology as having traces of earlier Arian roots.^[142]^[143] According to some of their contemporary enemies Cathars did not accept the Trinitarian understanding of Jesus, but considered him the human form of an angel similar to Docetic Christology.^[144] Zoé Oldenbourg (2000) compared the Cathars to "Western Buddhists" because she considered that their view of the doctrine of "resurrection" taught by Jesus was, in fact, similar to the Buddhist doctrine of reincarnation.^[145] The Cathars taught that to regain angelic status one had to renounce the material self completely. Until one was prepared to do so, he/she would be stuck in a cycle of reincarnation, condemned to live on the corrupt Earth.^[146]

The alleged sacred texts of the Cathars besides the New Testament, include The Gospel of the Secret Supper, or John's Interrogation and The Book of the Two Principles.^[147]

Social relationships

Killing was abhorrent to the Cathars. Consequently, abstention from all animal food (sometimes exempting fish) was enjoined of the Perfecti. The Perfecti avoided eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction.^[134] War and capital punishment were also condemned - an abnormality in Medieval Europe. In a world where few could read, their rejection of oath taking marked them as social revolutionaries.

Cathars also rejected marriage. Their theology was based principally on the belief that the physical world, including the flesh, was irredeemably evil - as it stemmed from the evil principle or "demiurge".^[148] Therefore, reproduction was viewed by them as a moral evil to be avoided - as it continued the chain of reincarnation and suffering in the material world. It was claimed by their opponents that, given this loathing for procreation, they generally reverted to sodomy. Such was the situation that a charge of heresy leveled against a suspected Cathar was usually dismissed if the accused could show he was legally married.

Organisation

It has been alleged that the Cathar Church of the Languedoc had a relatively flat structure, distinguishing between perfecti (a term they did not use, instead bonhommes) and credentes.^[134] By about 1140 liturgy and a system of doctrine had been established.^[149] It created a number of bishoprics, first at Albi around 1165 (hence the term Albigensians)^[150] and after the 1167 Council at Saint-Félix-Lauragais sites at Toulouse, Carcassonne, and Agen, so that four bishoprics were in existence by 1200.^[134]^[149]^[151]^[152]

In about 1225, during a lull in the Albigensian Crusade, the bishopric of Razes was added. Bishops were supported by their two assistants: a filius maior (typically the successor) and a filius minor, who were further assisted by deacons.^[153] The perfecti were the spiritual elite, highly respected by many of the local people, leading a life of austerity and charity.^[134] In the apostolic fashion they ministered to the people and travelled in pairs.^[134]

Role of women in Catharism

Catharism has been seen as giving women the greatest opportunities for independent action since women were found as being believers as well as Perfecti, who were able to administer the sacrament of the consolamentum.^[154] The Cathars believed that one would be repeatedly reincarnated until one commits to the self-denial of the material world, which meant that a man could be reincarnated as a woman and vise versa, thereby rendering gender completely meaningless.^[155]The soul was of utmost importance to the Cathars and was described as being immaterial and sexless.^[155] Because of this belief, the Cathars saw women equally capable of being spiritual leaders, which undermined the very concept of gender held by the Catholic Church and did not go unnoticed.^[156]

The women that were accused of being heretics in early medieval Christianity included those labeled Gnostics, Cathars, Beguines as well as several other groups that were sometimes "tortured and executed".^[157] The Cathars, like the Gnostics who preceded them, assigned more importance to the role of Mary Magdalene in the spread of early Christianity than the Church previously did. Her vital role as a teacher contributed to the Cathar belief that women could serve as spiritual leaders. Women were found to be included in the Perfecti in significant numbers, with numerous receiving the consolamentum after being widowed.^[154] Having reverence for the Gospel of John, the Cathars saw Mary as perhaps even more important than Saint Peter, the founder of the Church.^[158]

The Cathar movement proved to be extremely successful in gaining female followers because of its proto-feminist teachings along with the general feeling of exclusion from the Catholic church. Catharism attracted numerous women with the promise of a sacerdotal role that the Catholic Church did not allow.^[120] Catharism let women become a Perfect of the faith, a position of far more prestige than anything the Church offered.^[159] These female Perfects were required to adhere to a strict and ascetic lifestyle, but were still able to have their own houses.^[160] Although many women found something attractive in Catharism not all found its teachings convincing. A notable example is Hildegard of Bingen, who in 1163, gave a widely renowned sermon against the Cathars in Cologne. During this speech, Hildegard announced a state of eternal punishment and damnation to all those who accepted the Cathars beliefs.^[161]

While women Perfects rarely traveled to preach the faith, they still played a vital role in the spreading of the Catharism by establishing group homes for women.^[162] Though it was extremely uncommon, there were isolated cases of female Cathars departing from their homes to spread the faith.^[163] In the Cathar group homes, women were educated in the faith and these women would go on to bear children who would then also become believers. Through this pattern the faith grew exponentially through the efforts of women as each generation passed.^[162] Among some groups of Cathars there were even more women than there were men.^[164]

Despite women having an instrumental role in the growing of the faith, misogyny was not completely absent from the Cathar movement. Some seemingly misogynistic Cathar beliefs include that one's last incarnation had to be experienced as a man to break the cycle.^[133] This belief was inspired by later French Cathars, which taught that women must be reborn as men in order to achieve salvation.^[120] Another one is that the sexual allure of women impedes man's ability to reject the material world.^[133] Toward the end of the Cathar movement, French Catharism became more misogynistic and started the practice of excluding women Perfects.^[120] However, the influence of these type of misogynistic beliefs and practices remained rather limited on the whole of Catharism as later Italian Perfects still included women.^[120]

Suppression

In 1147, Pope Eugene III sent a legate to the Cathar district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of Bernard of Clairvaux could not obscure the poor results of this mission, which clearly showed the power of the sect in the Languedoc at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter of St. Chrysogonus to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry of Marcy, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180–81, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry's armed expedition, which took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement.

Decisions of Catholic Church councils—in particular, those of the Council of Tours (1163) and of the Third Council of the Lateran (1179)—had scarcely more effect upon the Cathars. When Pope Innocent III came to power in 1198, he was resolved to deal with them.

At first Innocent tried pacific conversion, and sent a number of legates into the Cathar regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who respected them, but also with many of the bishops of the region, who resented the considerable authority the Pope had conferred upon his legates. In 1204, Innocent III suspended a number of bishops in Occitania; in 1205 he appointed a new and vigorous bishop of Toulouse, the former troubadour Foulques. In 1206 Diego of Osma and his canon, the future Saint Dominic, began a programme of conversion in Languedoc; as part of this, Catholic-Cathar public debates were held at Verfeil, Servian, Pamiers, Montréal and elsewhere.

Saint Dominic met and debated with the Cathars in 1203 during his mission to the Languedoc. He concluded that only preachers who displayed real sanctity, humility and asceticism could win over convinced Cathar believers. The institutional Church as a general rule did not possess these spiritual warrants.^[165] His conviction led eventually to the establishment of the Dominican Order in 1216. The order was to live up to the terms of his famous rebuke, "Zeal must be met by zeal, humility by humility, false sanctity by real sanctity, preaching falsehood by preaching truth." However, even St. Dominic managed only a few converts among the Cathari.

Albigensian Crusade

Main article: Albigensian Crusade

In January 1208 the papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau - a Cistercian monk, theologian and canon lawyer - was sent to meet the ruler of the area, Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse.^[166] Known for excommunicating noblemen who protected the Cathars, Castelnau excommunicated Raymond for abetting heresy following an allegedly fierce argument during which Raymond supposedly threatened Castelnau with violence.^[167] Shortly thereafter, Castelnau was murdered as he returned to Rome, allegedly by a knight in the service of Count Raymond. His body was returned and laid to rest in the Abbey at Saint Gilles. As soon as he heard of the murder, the Pope ordered the legates to preach a crusade against the Cathars and wrote a letter to Philip Augustus, King of France, appealing for his intervention—or an intervention led by his son, Louis. This was not the first appeal but some see the murder of the legate as a turning point in papal policy. Others claim it as a fortuitous event in allowing the Pope to excite popular opinion and to renew his pleas for intervention in the south. The chronicler of the crusade which followed, Peter of Vaux de Cernay, portrays the sequence of events in such a way that, having failed in his effort to peaceably demonstrate the errors of Catharism, the Pope then called a formal crusade, appointing a series of leaders to head the assault. The French King refused to lead the crusade himself, and could not spare his son to do so either—despite his victory against John, King of England, there were still pressing issues with Flanders and the empire and the threat of an Angevin revival. Phillip did however sanction the participation of some of his more bellicose and ambitious—some might say dangerous—barons, notably Simon de Montfort and Bouchard de Marly. There followed twenty years of war against the Cathars and their allies in the Languedoc: the Albigensian Crusade.

This war pitted the nobles of the north of France against those of the south. The widespread northern enthusiasm for the Crusade was partially inspired by a papal decree permitting the confiscation of lands owned by Cathars and their supporters. This not only angered the lords of the south but also the French King, who was at least nominally the suzerain of the lords whose lands were now open to despoliation and seizure. Phillip Augustus wrote to Pope Innocent in strong terms to point this out—but the Pope did not change his policy—and many of those who went to the Midi were aware that the Pope had been equivocal over the Siege of Zara in 1202 and the Sack of Constantinople in 1204. As the Languedoc was supposedly teeming with Cathars and Cathar sympathisers, this made the region a target for northern French noblemen looking to acquire new fiefs. The barons of the north headed south to do battle.

Their first target was the lands of the Trencavel, powerful lords of Albi, Carcassonne and the Razes—but a family with few allies in the Midi. Little was thus done to form a regional coalition and the crusading army was able to take Carcassonne, the Trencavel capital, incarcerating Raymond Roger in his own citadel where he died, allegedly of natural causes; champions of the Occitan cause from that day to this believe he was murdered. Simon de Montfort was granted the Trencavel lands by the Pope and did homage for them to the King of France, thus incurring the enmity of Peter of Aragon who had held aloof from the conflict, even acting as a mediator at the time of the siege of Carcassonne. The remainder of the first of the two Cathar wars now essentially focused on Simon's attempt to hold on to his fabulous gains through winters where he was faced, with only a small force of confederates operating from the main winter camp at Fanjeau, with the desertion of local lords who had sworn fealty to him out of necessity—and attempts to enlarge his newfound domains in the summer when his forces were greatly augmented by reinforcements from northern France, Germany and elsewhere. Summer campaigns saw him not only retake, sometimes with brutal reprisals, what he had lost in the 'close' season, but also seek to widen his sphere of operation—and we see him in action in the Aveyron at St. Antonin and on the banks of the Rhone at Beaucaire. Simon's greatest triumph was the victory against superior numbers at the Battle of Muret—a battle which saw not only the defeat of Raymond of Toulouse and his Occitan allies—but also the death of Peter of Aragon—and the effective end of the ambitions of the house of Aragon/Barcelona in the Languedoc. This was in the medium and longer term of much greater significance to the royal house of France than it was to de Montfort—and with the battle of Bouvines was to secure the position of Philip Augustus vis a vis England and the Empire. The Battle of Muret was a massive step in the creation of the unified French kingdom and the country we know today—although Edward III, the Black Prince and Henry V would threaten later to shake these foundations.

Massacre

The crusader army came under the command, both spiritually and militarily, of the papal legate Arnaud-Amaury, Abbot of Cîteaux. In the first significant engagement of the war, the town of Béziers was besieged on 22 July 1209. The Catholic inhabitants of the city were granted the freedom to leave unharmed, but many refused and opted to stay and fight alongside the Cathars.

The Cathars spent much of 1209 fending off the crusaders. The Béziers army attempted a sortie but was quickly defeated, then pursued by the crusaders back through the gates and into the city. Arnaud-Amaury, the Cistercian abbot-commander, is supposed to have been asked how to tell Cathars from Catholics. His reply, recalled by Caesar of Heisterbach, a fellow Cistercian, thirty years later was "Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius."—"Kill them all, the Lord will recognise His own."^[168]^[169] The doors of the church of St Mary Magdalene were broken down and the refugees dragged out and slaughtered. Reportedly, 7,000 people died there. Elsewhere in the town many more thousands were mutilated and killed. Prisoners were blinded, dragged behind horses, and used for target practice.^[170] What remained of the city was razed by fire. Arnaud-Amaury wrote to Pope Innocent III, "Today your Holiness, twenty thousand heretics were put to the sword, regardless of rank, age, or sex."^[171]^[172] The permanent population of Béziers at that time was then probably no more than 5,000, but local refugees seeking shelter within the city walls could conceivably have increased the number to 20,000.

After the success of his siege of Carcassonne, which followed the Massacre at Béziers in 1209, Simon de Montfort was designated as leader of the Crusader army. Prominent opponents of the Crusaders were Raymond Roger Trencavel, viscount of Carcassonne, and his feudal overlord Peter II, the king of Aragon, who held fiefdoms and had a number of vassals in the region. Peter died fighting against the crusade on 12 September 1213 at the Battle of Muret. de Montfort was killed on 25 June 1218 after maintaining a siege of Toulouse for nine months.^[173]

Treaty and persecution

The war ended in the Treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater part of its fiefs, and that of the Trencavels (Viscounts of Béziers and Carcassonne) of the whole of their fiefs. The independence of the princes of the Languedoc was at an end. But in spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not yet extinguished.

In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the Fourth Council of the Lateran under Pope Innocent III; part of the agenda was combating the Cathar heresy.^[174]

The Inquisition was established in 1234 to uproot the remaining Cathars.^[175] Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13th century, and a great part of the 14th, it succeeded in crushing Catharism as a popular movement and driving its remaining adherents underground.^[175] Cathars who refused to recant were hanged, or burnt at the stake.^[176]

From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar fortress of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne.^[177] On 16 March 1244, a large and symbolically important massacre took place, where over 200 Cathar Perfects were burnt in an enormous pyre at the prat dels cremats ("field of the burned") near the foot of the castle.^[177] Moreover, the Church decreed lesser chastisements against laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars, at the 1235 Council of Narbonne.^[178]

Inquisitors required heretical sympathisers – repentant first offenders – to sew a yellow cross onto their clothes.^[179]

A popular though as yet unsubstantiated theory holds that a small party of Cathar Perfects escaped from the fortress before the massacre at prat dels cremats. It is widely held in the Cathar region to this day that the escapees took with them le trésor cathar. What this treasure consisted of has been a matter of considerable speculation: claims range from sacred Gnostic texts to the Cathars' accumulated wealth.

Hunted by the Inquisition and deserted by the nobles of their districts, the Cathars became more and more scattered fugitives: meeting surreptitiously in forests and mountain wilds. Later insurrections broke out under the leadership of Roger-Bernard II, Count of Foix, Aimery III of Narbonne and Bernard Délicieux (a Franciscan friar later prosecuted for his adherence to another heretical movement, that of the Spiritual Franciscans) at the beginning of the 14th century. But by this time the Inquisition had grown very powerful. Consequently, many presumed to be Cathars were summoned to appear before it. Precise indications of this are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The parfaits it was said only rarely recanted, and hundreds were burnt. Repentant lay believers were punished, but their lives were spared as long as they did not relapse. Having recanted, they were obliged to sew yellow crosses onto their outdoor clothing and to live apart from other Catholics, at least for a while.

Annihilation

After several decades of harassment and re-proselytising, and perhaps even more importantly, the systematic destruction of their religious texts, the sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts. The leader of a Cathar revival in the Pyrenean foothills, Peire Autier was captured and executed in April 1310 in Toulouse.^[180]^[181] After 1330, the records of the Inquisition contain very few proceedings against Cathars. The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed in the autumn of 1321.^[182]^[181]

From the mid-12th century onwards, Italian Catharism came under increasing pressure from the Pope and the Inquisition, "spelling the beginning of the end".^[183] Other movements, such as the Waldensians and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit, which suffered persecution in the same area, survived in remote areas and in small numbers into the 14th and 15th centuries. Some Waldensian ideas were absorbed into early Protestant sects, such as the Hussites, Lollards, and the Moravian Church (Herrnhuters of Germany).

Later history

After the suppression of Catharism, the descendants of Cathars were at times required to live outside towns and their defences. They thus retained a certain Cathar identity, despite having returned to the Catholic religion.

Any use of the term "Cathar" to refer to people after the suppression of Catharism in the 14th century is a cultural or ancestral reference, and has no religious implication. Nevertheless, interest in the Cathars, their history, legacy and beliefs continues.

Pays Cathare

The castle of Montségur was razed after 1244. The current fortress follows French military architecture of the 17th century

The term Pays Cathare, French meaning "Cathar Country" is used to highlight the Cathar heritage and history of the region where Catharism was traditionally strongest. This area is centred around fortresses such as Montségur and Carcassonne; also the French département of the Aude uses the title Pays Cathare in tourist brochures.^[184] These areas have ruins from the wars against the Cathars which are still visible today.

Some criticise the promotion of the identity of Pays Cathare as an exaggeration for tourist purposes. Actually, most of the promoted Cathar castles were not built by Cathars but by local lords and later many of them were rebuilt and extended for strategic purposes. Good examples of these are the magnificent castles of Queribus and Peyrepertuse which are both perched on the side of precipitous drops on the last folds of the Corbieres mountains. They were for several hundred years frontier fortresses belonging to the French crown and most of what is still there dates from a post-Cathar era. The Cathars sought refuge at these sites. Many consider the County of Foix to be the actual historical centre of Catharism.

Oldest account of ordinary people told in their own words

In an effort to find the few remaining heretics in and around the village of Montaillou, Jacques Fournier, Bishop of Pamiers, future Pope Benedict XII, had those suspected of heresy interrogated in the presence of scribes who recorded their conversations. The late 13th- to early 14th-century document, discovered in the Vatican archives in the 1960s, is the oldest known account of the daily lives of ordinary people told in their own words. It was translated by Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie as Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error.^[130] In the original, the book was entitled:Montaillou, Occitan Village.

Historical scholarship

The publication of the early scholarly book Crusade against the Grail by the young German Otto Rahn in the 1930s rekindled interest in the connection between the Cathars and the Holy Grail, especially in Germany. Rahn was convinced that the 13th-century work Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach was a veiled account of the Cathars. His research attracted the attention of the Nazi government and in particular of Heinrich Himmler, who made him an archaeologist in the SS. Rahn proposed the idea that the Cathars were inheritors of a pre-Christian Celtic dualist worldview, and thus identified their ideas to the Nazis as being one which were likely to be free of "Jewish mythology".^{[출처 필요]}

In the 20th century, Deodat Roche (1877-1978) was a key historian, and the founder of the scholarly French-language journal Cahiers d'Etudes Cathares.

Major academic books in English - for example, Malcolm Lambert's The Cathars^[185] and Malcolm Barber's The Cathars^[186] - only starting appearing at the turn of the millennium.

Legacy in art and music

The principal legacy of the Cathar movement is in the poems and songs of the Cathar troubadors, though this artistic legacy is only a smaller part of the wider Occitan linguistic and artistic heritage. Recent artistic projects concentrating on the Cathar element in Provençal and troubador art include commercial recording projects by Thomas Binkley, electric hurdy-gurdy artist Valentin Clastrier and his CD Heresie dedicated to the church at Cathars,^[187] La Nef,^[188] and Jordi Savall.^[189]

Legacy in modern popular culture

The Cathars have been depicted or re-interpreted in popular books and films such as The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail and Labyrinth, Bernard Cornwells The Grail Quest series and Cathar concepts and tenets permeate Cloud Atlas. A number of semi-fictional conspiracy theories have been published that integrate the Cathars into their ideas, especially in France and Germany.

See also

Antonin Gadal
Crusades
The four Cathar castles above Lastours.
Manisola

References

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Lansing, Carol (1998). 《Power and Purity: Cathar Heresy in Medieval Italy》. Oxford University Press (USA). ISBN 978-0195149807.
Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel (1979). 《Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error, Barbara Bray translator》. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0807615980.
Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2004), 《The new Cambridge medieval history: c. 1024 – c. 1198》, 522쪽
Madaule, Jacques (1967). 《The Albigensian Crusade: An Historical Essay》. New York: Fordham UP.
Magee, Dr M D (2002년 12월 12일), 《Heresy and the Inquisition II Persecution of Heretics》 .
Mann, Judith (2002), 《The Trail of Gnosis》, Gnosis Traditions Press
Markale, Jean (2003), 《Montségur and the Mystery of the Cathars》, Inner Traditions, ISBN 978-0892810901
Martin, Sean (2005), 《The Cathars: The Most Successful Heresy of the Middle Ages》, Pocket Essentials, ISBN 1-904048-33-1
Maris, Yves (2006), 《Cathars – Memories of an initiate》, AdA .
Maseko, Achim N. (2008), 《Church Schism & Corruption》, South Africa: Lulu.com, 482쪽, ISBN 9781409221869
Moore, John Clare (2003), 《Pope Innocent III (1160/61–1216): To Root Up and to Plant》, Brill, 180쪽, ISBN 90‐04‐12925‐1 |isbn= 값 확인 필요: invalid character (도움말)
Moore, R I (1985). 《The Origins of European Dissent》. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631144045.
Moore, R I (1995). 《The Birth of Heresy》. Medieval Academy of America. ISBN 0-8020-7659-9.
Moore, R I (2006) [1992]. 《The Formation of a Persecuting Society》. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405129640.
Moreland, Miles (1992), 《Miles Away: A Walk Across France》, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-679-42527-6
Murphy, Cullen (2012), 《God's Jury: The Inquisition and the Making of the Modern World》, Houhton Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 978-0-618-09156-0
Newman, Barbara (1998). “Possessed by the Spirit: Devout Women, Demoniacs, and the Apostolic Life in the Thirteenth Century”. Speculum, vol. 73, no. 3: 733–770.
O'Shea, Stephen (2000). 《The Perfect Heresy: The Revolutionary Life and Death of the Medieval Cathars》. New York: Walker & Company. ISBN 978-1861972705.
Pegg, Mark (2001), “On Cathars, Albigenses, and good men of Languedoc”, 《Journal of Medieval History》 27 (2): 181–190 .
Pegg, Mark (2001b), 《The Corruption of Angels: The Great Inquisition of 1245–1245》, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691006567
Pegg, Mark (2006), 〈Heresy, good men, and nomenclature〉, Frassetto, Michael, 《Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages》, Studies in the History of Christian Traditions (129), Leiden: Brill, 227–39쪽 .
Pegg, Mark (2008). 《A Most Holy War: The Albigensian Crusade and the Battle for Christendom》. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195171310.
Peters, Edward, 편집. (1980), 《Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe》, University of Pennsylvania Press . A collection of primary sources, some on Catharism.
Riparelli, Enrico (2008), 《Il volto del Cristo dualista. Da Marcione ai catari》 (이탈리아어), Bern: Peter Lang, ISBN 978‐303911490‐0 |isbn= 값 확인 필요: invalid character (도움말)
Roach, Andrew P (2005), 《The Devil's World: Heresy and Society 1100–1320》, Harlow: Pearson Longman
Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry, 편집. (1994) [1900], 《Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers》, Second Series, Volume 14: I Nice AD 325 (Canons of the Council of Nicaea), Trans. Henry R. Percival Reprint판, Hendrickson, ISBN 978-1565631168
Schaus, Margaret (2006), 《Women And Gender in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia》, New York: Taylor and Francis Group, ISBN 978-0415969444
Sibly, W A; Sibly, M D (2003), 《The Chronicle of William of Puylaurens: The Albigensian Crusade and Its Aftermath》, Boydell Press, 128쪽, ISBN 978-0851159256
Simpson, John, 편집. (1989), 《Oxford English Dictionary》 Seco판, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Stork, Nancy P., 《The Inquisition Record of Jacques Fournier, Bishop of Pamiers 1318-1325》, California: San Jose State University
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Théry, Julien (2002), 《L'Hérésie des bons hommes (XIIe-début du XIVe s.). Comment nommer la dissidence religieuse non vaudoise ni béguine en Languedoc?》 (PDF), Heresis, 36-37, 75–117쪽
Théry, Julien (2003), 〈Cléricalisme et Hérésie des bons hommes : l'exemple d'Albi et de l'Albigeois (1276-1329)〉, 《L'anticléricalisme en France méridionale (milieu XIIe-début XIVe s.)》, Cahiers de Fanjeaux 38, Paris: Privat, 471–508쪽, ISBN 978-2708934412
Théry, Julien (2010), 〈Les Hérésies, du XIIe au début du XIVe s.〉, de Cevins, Marie-Madeleine; Matz, Jean-Michel, 《Structures et dynamiques de la vie religieuse en Occident (1179-1449)》 (PDF) (프랑스어), Rennes: Presses Universtaire de Rennes, 373–386쪽
Townsend, Anne Bradford (2008), 《The Cathars of Languedoc as heretics: From the perspectives of Five Contemporary Scholars》 Dissertation판, Union Institute and University, 9쪽, ISBN 978-1243491602
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Walther, Daniel (1965), 〈A Survey of Recent Research on the Albigensian Cathari〉, 《Church History》 34 (2), Cambridge University Press, 146–177쪽
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Weber, Nicholas (1908a), 〈Albigenses〉, 《Catholic Encyclopedia》, New Advent
Weber, Nicholas (1908b), 〈Cathari〉, 《Catholic Encyclopedia》, New Advent
Weis, René (2001). 《The Yellow Cross: The Story of the Last Cathars 1290-1329》. New York: Random House.
Zerner, Monique (1998), Inventer l'hérésie ? Discours polémiques et pouvoirs avant l'Inquisition, Nice : Centre d'études médiévales
Zerner, Monique (2001), L'histoire du catharisme en discussion : le « concile » de Saint-Félix (1167), Nice : Centre d'études médiévales

External links

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Cathars

《Cathar texts》, The Gnostic Society Library , including the Lyon Ritual.
(영어) Catharism - BBC 인 아워 타임
〈Catharism and the Cathars of the Languedoc〉, Castles & Manor Houses http://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/cathars |제목=이(가) 없거나 비었음 (도움말): History, origins, theology and extirpation.
《Cathar castles》 : details, histories, photographs, plans and maps of 30 Cathar castles.
《Cathar castles》 (interactive map), Aude‐Aude .
Perrottet, Tony (2010년 5월 9일), “The Besieged and the Beautiful in Languedoc”, 《The New York Times》
《Heretics in the Catalan Pyrenees at the end of the 11th century?》 (article), Paratge, 2013 .

Chisholm, Hugh, 편집. (1911). 〈Albigenses〉. 《브리태니커 백과사전》 11판. 케임브리지 대학교 출판부.

The Cainites, or Cainians (Greek: Καϊνοί Kainoi, Καϊανοί Kaianoi),^[190] were a Gnostic and Antinomian sect who were known to venerate Cain as the first victim of the Demiurge, the deity of the Tanakh, who was identified by many groups of Gnostics as evil. The sect following was relatively small. They were mentioned by Tertullian and Irenaeus as existing in the eastern Roman Empire during the 2nd century. One of their purported religious texts was the Gospel of Judas.

History

The oldest source is to be found in Irenaeus, adv. Haer. i. 31. Cain and Abel

He tells us that the Cainites regarded Cain as derived from the higher principle. They claimed fellowship with Esau, Korah, the men of Sodom, and all such people, and regarded themselves as on that account persecuted by the Creator. But they escaped injury from him, for Sophia used to carry away from them to herself that which belonged to her.

Epiphanius (Haer. 38) characteristically gives a much longer account, in substantial harmony with what Irenaeus says. He appears to have had some source of information independent of Irenaeus. He speaks of Abel as derived from the weaker principle—a statement which bears the marks of authenticity. Redemption

William Blake, *The Body of Abel Found by Adam and Eve*, c. 1825. Watercolour on wood.

The account given by Irenaeus is unduly curt and the text not quite secure, but it is not difficult to form a general estimate of the sect from it, especially with the assistance of our other sources. Like other Gnostics, the Cainites drew a distinction between the Creator and the Supreme God. They identified the Creator with the God of the Jews. They viewed him and those whom he favoured with undisguised hostility; redemption had for its end the dissolution of his work. They claimed kinship with those to whom he showed antagonism in his book, the Old Testament, and shared themselves in the same hostility. Nevertheless he was the weaker power, who could do them no permanent harm, for Sophia, the Heavenly Wisdom, drew back to herself those elements in their nature which they had derived from her.

Presumably, then, they thought of a division of mankind into two classes—the spiritual and the material, the latter belonging to the realm of the Creator and deriving their being from him, but doomed to dissolution, while the former class contained the spiritual men, imprisoned, it is true, in bodies of flesh, but yet deriving their essential being from the highest Power, opposed by the Creator and his minions, but winning the victory over them as Cain did over Abel.

Judas

They regarded Judas the traitor as having full cognizance of the truth. He therefore, rather than the other disciples, was able to accomplish the mystery of the betrayal, and so bring about the dissolution of all things both celestial and terrestrial. The Cainites possessed a work entitled The Gospel of Judas, and Irenaeus says that he had himself collected writings of theirs, where they advocated that the work of Hystera should be dissolved. By Hystera they meant the Maker of Heaven and Earth.

Epiphanius also says that Judas forced the Archons, or rulers, against their will to slay Christ, and thus assisted us to the salvation of the Cross. Philaster, on the other hand, assigns the action of Judas to his knowledge that Christ intended to destroy the truth—a purpose which he frustrated by the betrayal.

There is no doubt that they applauded the action of Judas in the betrayal, but our authorities differ as to the motive which prompted him. The view that Judas through his more perfect Gnosis penetrated the wish of Jesus more successfully than the others, and accomplished it by bringing him to the Cross through which he effected redemption, is intrinsically the more probable.

Transmigration

So far as the moral character and conduct of the Cainites is concerned, there is no doubt that Irenaeus intended to represent them as shrinking from no vileness, but rather as deliberately practising it. He states that they taught, as did Carpocrates, that salvation could be attained only by passing through all experience. Whenever any sin or vile action was performed by them, they asserted that an angel was present whom they invoked, claiming that they were fulfilling his operation. Perfect knowledge consisted in going without a tremor into such actions as it is not lawful even to name.

Carpocrates, we are told, defended this practice by a theory of transmigration. It was necessary to pass through all experiences, and hence the soul had to pass from body to body till the whole range of experience had been traversed. If, however, this could all be crowded into a single lifetime, then the transmigration became unnecessary. We have no ground to suppose that the Cainites held such a view, but they seem to have professed the belief that this fullness of experience was essential to salvation. We have no substantial justification for doubting the truth of Irenaeus' account, though accusations of immorality urged against heretics should always be received with caution. G.R.S. Mead (Fragments of a Faith Forgotten, 1900, p. 229) thinks that originally they were ascetics, while N. Lardner (History of Heretics, bk. ii. ch. xiv. [= Works, 1829, viii. 560]) questions whether a sect guilty of such enormities ever existed. But there is no valid reason to deny the generally accepted view that the Gnostic attitude to matter did lead to quite opposite results. To some it would seem a duty to crush the flesh beneath the spirit by the severest austerity, but the premiss might lead to a libertine as well as to an ascetic conclusion.

Source texts on the Cainites

Irenaeus, Against Heresies 1.31.1–2
Epiphanius of Salamis, Panarion 38
Hippolytus, Against Heresies 8
Pseudo-Tertullian, Against All Heresies 7
Tertullian, On Baptism 1.

Other meanings

Cainites is a term used by some adherents of Christian Identity groups to disparage Jews.
Cainites is an alternate transliteration for Kenites.
Cainite theology is discussed in the 1919 Hermann Hesse novel, Demian.

In popular culture

The Cainites are referred to in issue 22 (May 1990) of Sandman, a comic published by DC Comics and written by Neil Gaiman. The description of the sect is inconsistent with this entry's description.
In White Wolf, Inc.'s Vampire: The Masquerade universe (also known as the World of Darkness) storyline, Cainites is another name for Vampires i.e.: those descended from Cain (the first vampire). The description of the sect is inconsistent with this entry's description.
The book Demian, by Hermann Hesse, extensively draws upon the beliefs of the Cainite sect. The eponymous character Max Demian even convinces the protagonist Emil Sinclair that Christianity had misunderstood Cain's virtue over Abel's.
In The Hundred Days (novel), 19th in Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey-Maturin series: Dr. Amos Jacob, an expert on North African languages and customs, becomes Maturin's assistant surgeon and intelligence officer. Amongst other connections, he belongs to the esoteric cult of Cainites; ancient and declining but still extent throughout the Mediterranean. The plot turns on Dr. Jacob's serendipitous recognition of a fellow member by their shared, secret "mark of Cain."

See also

Sethians

Bibliography

Overview of "Cainites from the Catholic Encyclopedia

Attribution

본 문서에는 현재 퍼블릭 도메인에 속한 다음 저작물을 기초로 작성된 내용이 포함되어 있습니다: Peake, Arthur S. (1919). 〈Cainites〉. Hastings, James; Selbie, John Alexander; Lambert, John Chisholm. 《Dictionary of the Apostolic Church》. Volume I. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. 165–6쪽.
본 문서에는 현재 퍼블릭 도메인에 속한 다음 저작물을 기초로 작성된 내용이 포함되어 있습니다: Salmon, George (1877). 〈Cainites〉. Smith, William; Wace, Henry. 《A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines》. Volume I. London: John Murray. 380-2쪽.

Nebrod, son of Chus AEthiops, of the line of Cham[편집]

님로드의 다른 이름: 마곡 즉 페르이사인[편집]

Nebrod, son of Chus AEthiops, of the line of Cham, invented hunting, magic, and the astrological and genethliac (생일의, 출생 때의 별의 위치에 관한) arts, for the people called Magog or Persians, who affirm that he is now a God and the star Orion; so saith the nameless⁸⁾ chronographer prefixed to John Malalas.

⁸⁾ Cbron. Anon. L. 2. p. 18.

오리온의 다른 이름들[편집]

The modern Chaldee name of that constellation (즉 오리온) is Niphla⁹⁾, and
the Syriac, Ga-voro, quae gigantem ac strenuum significant; and
the Arabic, al Gjebbar, is of the same signification.
Niphla is clearly [Page 6] the same as the Hebrew Nephil, translated Giant, but said rather to mean Apostate.
The same constellation is called, in Armenian, Haic¹⁰⁾, being the name of one of those immense and arrogant giants who undertook to build the Tower of Babel

The AEgyptians said that the Argo was constellated in honour of the Ship of Osiris, the Dog-star of Isis, and Orion¹¹⁾ of Orus.

⁹⁾ Hyde Comm. in Ulugh Beighi Tab. Stell. Fix. p. 45,46. Genes, c. vi. v. 4.

¹⁰⁾ Moses Chorcnensis L. 1. p. 34. and Whiston, note on p. 25.

¹¹⁾ Plutarch. de Is. et Os. p. 367. Xyland.

오리온의 부모[편집]

Orion, said by some to be son of¹²⁾ Neptune, and Euryale (에우리알레: 고르곤, 멀리 떠돌아다니는 여자, 포르키스와 케토스의 딸), or Hyelus, was generally made to spring from Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury, who begot him when on a visit to his putative father Hyrieus, at Hyrie in Boeotia.

12) Apollod. Bibl. L. l. c. 4. s. 3. Schol. Nic, Tber. v. 15.

Ttya,$ 'Xlgxwv Tpirfaru)§ oLiro prpepos dv

Qope 'Evre ®ewv rgiyovoidv deffleura. yeveSXyg

'E$ roKOv dvroretes'ov

epogfjuvir)

%vris o v p ua v

Kai %8ovo$ do"ito§Qv via, Xarywv pawara.ro¹³⁾

¹³⁾ Nonn. Dion. l. xiil v. 26. Ovid. Fast v. v. 535. The words addressed by the Host to Dr. Caius, "Thou art a Castalion king urinal! Hector of Greece, my boy !" (first edit. or according to the Oxford edit. Cardalion) have greatly the air of being written in allusion to some Tomanee or fustian (그럴듯한[번드르르한] 말) poem, founded on the fable of Orion. Merry Wives of Windsor, Act II. scene 3. first edition folio.

From this circumstance, and from the Greek verb ourein, he was said to be called Ourion, and by corruption Orion, after that

Perdidit antiquum litera prima sonum.

오리온의 놀라운 출생[편집]

Had it merely been intended to say that Orion was wonderfully begotten, having the earth or the Boein (보에인: 그리스어) in place of a mother, the same would have been said, as in the fable of Erich-Chthonius; but it is clearly meant that we should [Page 7] understand, that he succeeded the flood, and was the offspring of Jupiter Nephelegeretas (즉 cloud-gatherer, cloud-compeller), or Pluvius (즉 sender of rain), being himself the chief of the Heliadae (즉 seven sons of Helios and Rhode), whom the sun generated by shedding his beams on the wet mud, of the

aevo mortalia primo

Corpora ..... pluvialibus edita fungis,

and of the

sati largo Curetes ab imbre.

Erichthonius may refer to:

King Erichthonius (also written Erichthonios, Ancient Greek: Ἐριχθόνιος) was a mythological early ruler of ancient Athens, Greece. He was, according to some legends, autochthonous (born of the soil, or Earth) and raised by the goddess Athena. Early Greek texts do not distinguish between him and Erectheus,^[191] his grandson, but by the fourth century BC, during Classical times, they are entirely distinct figures.

Birth

According to the Bibliotheca, Athena visited the smith-god Hephaestus to request some weapons, but Hephaestus was so overcome by desire that he tried to seduce her in his workshop. Determined to maintain her virginity, Athena fled, pursued by Hephaestus. Despite Hephaestus' lameness, he caught Athena and tried to rape her, but she fought him off. During the struggle, his semen fell on her thigh, and Athena, in disgust, wiped it away with a scrap of wool (ἔριον, erion) and flung it to the earth (χθών, chthôn). As she fled, Erichthonius was born from the semen that fell to the earth. Athena, wishing to raise the child in secret, placed him in a small box.

Athena gave the box to the three daughters of Cecrops, the king of Athens (Herse, Pandrosus and Aglaurus), and warned them never to open it. Overcome with curiosity, Aglaurus and Herse opened the box, which contained the infant and future-king, Erichthonius ("troubles born from the earth"). (Sources are unclear whether only one sister or all three participated.) The sisters were terrified by what they saw in the box: either a snake coiled around an infant, or an infant that was half-man and half-serpent. They went insane and threw themselves off the Acropolis. Other accounts state that they were killed by the snake.

An alternative version of the story is that Athena left the box with the daughters of Cecrops while she went to fetch a mountain from Pallene to use in the Acropolis. While she was away, Aglaurus and Herse opened the box. A crow saw them open the box, and flew away to tell Athena, who fell into a rage and dropped the mountain she was carrying (now Mt. Lykabettos). As in the first version, Herse and Aglaurus went insane and threw themselves to their deaths off a cliff.

Reign

When he grew up, Erichthonius drove out Amphictyon, who had usurped the throne from Cranaus twelve years earlier, and became king of Athens. He married Praxithea, a naiad, and had a son, Pandion I. During this time, Athena frequently protected him. He founded the Panathenaic Festival in the honor of Athena, and set up a wooden statue of her on the Acropolis. According to the Parian Chronicle, he taught his people to yoke horses and use them to pull chariots, to smelt silver, and to till the earth with a plough. It was said that Erichthonius was lame of his feet and that he consequently invented the quadriga, or four-horse chariot to get around easier. He is said to have competed often as a chariot driver in games. Zeus was said to have been so impressed with his skill that he raised him to the heavens to become the constellation of the Charioteer (Auriga) after his death.

Ericthonius was succeeded by his son Pandion I. The snake is his symbol, and he is represented in the statue of Athena in the Parthenon as the snake hidden behind her shield.

References

Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Erichtho'nius"

External links

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Erichthonius of Athens

The mythical King Erichthonius of Dardania was the son of Dardanus, King of Dardania, and Batea, (although some legends say his mother was Olizone, descendant of Phineus). He is said to have enjoyed a peaceful and prosperous reign.

Fundamentally, all that is known of this Erichthonius comes from Homer, who says (Samuel Butler's translation of Iliad 20.215-234):

"In the beginning Dardanos was the son of Zeus, and founded Dardania, for Ilion was not yet established on the plain for men to dwell in, and her people still abode on the spurs of many-fountained Ida. Dardanos had a son, king Erichthonios, who was wealthiest of all men living; he had three thousand mares that fed by the water-meadows, they and their foals with them. Boreas was enamored of them as they were feeding, and covered them in the semblance of a dark-maned stallion. Twelve filly foals did they conceive and bear him, and these, as they sped over the fertile plain, would go bounding on over the ripe ears of wheat and not break them; or again when they would disport themselves on the broad back of Ocean they could gallop on the crest of a breaker. Erichthonios begat Tros, king of the Trojans,and Tros had three noble sons, Ilos, Assarakos, and Ganymede who was comeliest of mortal men; wherefore the gods carried him off to be Zeus' cupbearer, for his beauty's sake, that he might dwell among the immortals."

John Tzetzes and one of the scholia to Lycophron call his wife Astyoche, daughter of Simoeis. The Bibliotheca also adds Erichthonius' older brother Ilus, who died young and childless; presumably a doublet of the other Ilus, grandson of Erichthonius, eponym of Troy.

Strabo (13.1.48) records, but discounts, the claim by "some more recent writers" that Teucer came from the deme of Xypeteones in Attica, supposedly called Troes (meaning Trojans) in mythical times. These writers mentioned that Erichthonius appears as founder both in Attica and the Troad, and may be identifying the two.

Erichthonius reigned for forty six or, according to others, sixty five years and was succeeded by his son Tros.

Family tree

References

Greek Mythology Link 2003-10-01
March, J., Cassell's Dictionary Of Classical Mythology, London, 1999. ISBN 0-304-35161-X
Notes to the Bibliotheca 3.12.2; ed. by. Sir James George Frazer.
Perseus Encyclopedia, Erichthonius.

In Greek mythology, the Heliadae (Ἡλιάδαι) were the seven sons of Helios and Rhode, brothers to Electryone. They were Ochimus, Cercaphus, Macareus or Macar, Actis, Tenages, Triopas, and Candalus (Nonnus^[192] adds Auges and Thrinax). They were expert astrologers and seafarers, and were the first to introduce sacrifices to Athena at Rhodes.^[193] They also drove the Telchines out of Rhodes.^[192]

Tenages was the most highly endowed of the Heliadae, and was eventually killed by Macareus, Candalus, Triopas and Actis who were jealous of his skills at science. As soon as their crime was discovered, the four had to escape from Rhodes: Macareus fled to Lesbos, Candalus to Cos, Triopas to Caria, and Actis to Egypt.^[194] Ochimus and Cercaphus, who stayed aside from the crime, remained at the island and founded the city of Achaea (in the territory of modern Ialysos).^[195] Ochimus, the eldest of the brothers, seized control over the island; Cercaphus married Ochimus' daughter and succeeded to the power. The three sons of Cercaphus, Lindus, Ialusus and Camirus, were founders and eponyms of the cities Lindos, Ialysos and Kameiros respectively.^[196]

References

Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Heliadae and Heliads"

Bull's-Hide에 대하여[편집]

But the Bull's-Hide has another and peculiar meaning. Ulysses received from AEolus, who lived in an island surrounded with brazen walls, the dcno $ (5oo$ ivvswgoio which contained the winds, and Ulysses afterwards founded in Germany the 'Ao-Ki-Uvpyiov or Tower of the Bull's-Hide.

Dido (카르타고(Carthage)를 창설한 여왕) built a citadel (성채[요새]) in Africa called Byrsa or the Bull's-Hide, of which idea (in my second part, and when I treat of her) I will shew several other examples. It suffices to say now, that the begetting of Orion in the byrsa, signifies that he was generated (no matter how) in the Tower of Babel.

As the son of three gods, Orion was styled the Tripator; and it is sorry work of Mr. Bryant (Jacob Bryant: 1715~1804) to talk of Tor Patar, [or some such words] the Oracle of the Tower.

Aeolus^[197] (Αἴολος, Aiolos [ajolos], Modern Greek: [ˈe.olos]{{{2}}} (도움말·정보)), a name shared by three mythic characters, was the ruler of the winds in Greek mythology. These three personages are often difficult to tell apart, and even the ancient mythographers appear to have been perplexed about which Aeolus was which. Diodorus Siculus made an attempt to define each of these three (although it is clear he also became muddled), and his opinion is followed here.^[198] Briefly, the first Aeolus was a son of Hellen and eponymous founder of the Aeolian race; the second was a son of Poseidon, who led a colony to islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea; and the third Aeolus was a son of Hippotes who is mentioned in Odyssey book 10 as Keeper of the Winds who gives Odysseus a tightly closed bag full of the captured winds so he could sail easily home to Ithaca on the gentle West Wind. But instead his men thought it was filled with riches, so they opened it which is why the journey was extended. All three men named Aeolus appear to be connected genealogically, although the precise relationship, especially regarding the second and third Aeolus, is often ambiguous.

Son of Hellen

This Aeolus was son of Hellen and the nymph Orseis, and a brother of Dorus, Xuthus and, in some sources, of Amphictyon (who is otherwise a brother of Hellen).^[199] Described as the ruler of Aeolia (later called Thessaly) and held to be the founder of the Aeolic branch of the Greek nation, this Aeolus married Enarete, daughter of Deimachus (otherwise unknown). Aeolus and Enarete had many children, although the precise number and identities of these children vary from author to author in the ancient sources.^[200] The great extent of country which this race occupied, and the desire of each part of it to trace its origin to some descendant of Aeolus, probably gave rise to the varying accounts about the number of his children. Some scholars contend that the most ancient and genuine story told of only four sons of Aeolus: Sisyphus, Athamas, Cretheus, and Salmoneus, as the representatives of the four main branches of the Aeolic race.^[198] Other sons included Deioneus, Perieres, Cercaphas and perhaps Magnes (usually regarded as a brother of Macedon) and Aethlius. Another son is named Mimas, who provides a link to the third Aeolus in a genealogy that seems very contrived. Calyce, Peisidice, Perimede and Alcyone were counted among the daughters of Aeolus and Enarete.^[201] This Aeolus also had an illegitimate daughter named Arne, begotten on Melanippe, daughter of the Centaur Cheiron. This Arne became the mother of the second Aeolus, by the god Poseidon.

Son of Poseidon

This Aeolus was a son of Poseidon by Arne, daughter of Aeolus. He had a twin brother named Boeotus. Arne confessed to her father that she was with child by the god Poseidon; her father, however, did not believe her, and handed her over to a man named Metapontus, King of Icaria. When Bœotus and Aeolus were born, they were raised by Metapontus; but their stepmother (Autolyte, wife of Metapontus) quarrelled with their mother Arne, prompting Bœotus and Aeolus to kill Autolyte and flee from Icaria. Bœotus (accompanied by Arne) went to southern Thessaly, and founded Boeotia; but Aeolus went to a group of islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, which received from him the name of the Aeolian Islands; according to some accounts this Aeolus founded the town of Lipara. Although his home has been traditionally identified as one of the Aeolian Islands (there is little consensus as to which), near Sicily, an alternative location has been suggested at Gramvousa off the northwest coast of Crete. Aeolus had six sons and six daughters, whom in Homer he wed to one another and the family lived happily together. Later writers were shocked by the incest: in Hyginus,^[202] the day Aeolus learned that one of his sons, Macareus, had committed incest with his sister Canace he expelled Macareus and threw the child born of this incestuous union to the dogs,^[203] and sent his daughter a sword by which she was to kill herself.^[204] Other late accounts claim that Macareus had a daughter named Amphissa, beloved by Apollo.

Son of Hippotes

This Aeolus is most frequently conflated with Aeolus, the son of Poseidon, god of the sea. It is difficult to differentiate this Aeolus from the second Aeolus, as their identities seem to have been merged by many ancient writers. The father of this third Aeolus is given as Hippotes, son of Mimas, a son of the first Aeolus (son of Hellen). According to some accounts, Hippotes married the same Melanippe who was the mother of Arne.^[205] This Aeolus lived on the floating island of Aeolia and was visited by Odysseus and his crew in the Odyssey. He gave hospitality for a month and provided for a west wind to carry them home. He also provided a gift of a bag containing all winds but the west, which Odysseus's crew members unwittingly opened just before they were to reach Ithaca. Unfortunately, they were blown back to Aeolia, where Aeolus refused to provide any further help,^[206] because he believed that their short and unsuccessful voyage meant that the gods did not favour them. This Aeolus was perceived by post-Homeric authors as a god, rather than as a mortal and simple Keeper of the Winds (as in the Odyssey).

Like the previous, this Aeolus was said to have had twelve children - six sons and six daughters. According to Diodorus, he was father of six sons by Cyane, daughter of Liparus (the eponym of the island Lipara, whom Aeolus assisted in conquering lands above Surrentum, Italy). The sons' names were Agathyrnus, Astyochus, Androcles, Iocastus, Pheraemon, Xuthus, whereas the daughters are not mentioned at all. The sons were said to have become kings: Iocastus of the region in southern Italy as far as Rhegium; Pheraemon and Androcles of the part of Sicily between the Strait of Messina and Lilybaeum; Xuthus of Leontini; Agathyrnus of what was known as Agathyrnitis, having founded Agathyrnum; and Astyochus of Lipara. All were said to have been remembered as just and pious rulers.^[207] Another list of Aeolus' children is found in scholia on the Odyssey.^[208] The latter source gives the sons' names as Androcles, Chrysippus, Iocastus, Phalacrus, Pheraemon, Xuthus, and the daughters' as Aeole, Astycrateia, Dia, Hephaestia, Iphthe, Periboea; their mother in this account is Telepora or Telepatra, daughter of Laestrygon.

Parthenius of Nicaea^[209] recorded a love affair between Odysseus and Aeolus' daughter Polymele; the latter was said to have ended up betrothed to her own brother Diores.

In the Aeneid by Virgil, Juno offers Aeolus the nymph Deiopea as a wife if he will release his winds upon the fleet of Aeneas.^[210]

External links

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Aeolus

Tripator에 대하여[편집]

But it may be a question, why he was made a Tripator. I believe he was so in two senses.

Tripator의 첫 번째 의미: 자연적 의미[편집]

The first is natural, from having three fathers, i.e. ancestours, being the fourth in order from Noah, with whom this present cycle, or system, of the world commenced, in which I am confirmed by the names of certain daemons¹⁴⁾ venerated at Athens, [Page 8] and presiding over the generation of children and over the winds, the Trito-Patores, because this cannot be having three, [Page 9] but being the third, fathers. Cush is a third father, and the Tripator, or man, having three ancestours, must be the son of a Tritopator, and certainly the ivqwfoi xai $V\OKS$ rwv dvepujv are likely to get their children in the Bull's-Hide of AEolus. [Page 9]

The appellation of Pallas, Trito-Genea, is equivalent to Trito-Pator, meaning the third in succession. Most of the Heroic genealogies are of three or four descents, a circumstance of great weight, if we would search out the times and circumstances to which the Heroic legends relate.

Daemons에 대하여[편집]

¹⁴⁾ [Page 7] As this word, Daemons, most recur, it should be explained. It signifies the Departed Soul of a man, revered as a Deity, or as a Protecting Power and an object of propitiation. There may be reasons for thinking, that its etymon is about equivalent to Deus Lunus; for, although it was understood that the herd of mortals descended to Hades, or "into the Pit," those, in whom there was a portion of divine nature incarnate, were thought to be translated to the Spheres, and especially to the Moon. See Plutarch de Gen. Socr. p. 591 ; hence the fathers thought that Paradise was in or [Page 8] near the Moon, and Enoch and E$ps were like the daemon heroes. The Divine Spirit .of Hercules was in Heaven, but his Human Ghost was in Hell. Those who lived with Saturn [or Noah] in the golden age became AfttfAOvt?, as Hesiod informs us, '?0*^x01, liriyQovioi, (pvhaxtg ?HJTW? ouQpuiirun, who were wont to walk the earth, robed in darkness, observing the good and evil deeds of men, and dispensing wealth. O. et D. v. 121. In the plural, Homer uses it as equivalent to Gods, [Vide Iliad, i. verse 222] but in the singular for Fate or Fortune. The word Aa*,uoyof, by which his characters often address one another, is a term of reproach and expostulation, and is as much as to say, Sure you are possest, StoSxa&jf or vu/*po\ij7rro;. * But if the Daimones are, by way of excellence, the Spirits of the Men-Gods, it has a general sense of departed souls. JEacus sat as a judge in Hell, and to judge whom ? Certainly not the Gods, but dead men. But Pindar [who styles him xifoog *itiyfimos\ adds 5 xa\ Zoupwfftriv lvt%xmhxag. Isth. viii v. 49. And, in a passage of the seventh Isthmian, he uses the word to express our State or Condition after Death, evac-xo^n yap hfxws an-avri; Zaiuwv 8* xf$-o?, v. 60* When the Cynic Peregrinus was about to burn, himself, he invoked the Spirits of his father and mother, Zoning fl-aTgwot x?i firirpjok, [Luc. de M. Peregr. c 36.] and it is sometimes used plurally in speaking of the soul of one man, Sao-ov ayavavraa$ai TOV; rov paxapirov Sa/fxova;, [id. de Luctu, c 24.] which is not unlike the phrase in Virgil, Quisque suos patimur Manes; indeed the corresponding word Manes has no singular in use, " Callimachi Manes," etc In Lucian's Ass, the word taifxoviov is used for a Ghost or Apparition, " Whither go you, my pretty lass, at this time of night? oCS? T& Soupm* Zetoixae ? Are you not afraid of Ghosts ?" Luc. Asin. c. 24. He elsewhere couples batjuoyac with $aiTaT[iat* and ?xgwv >J/ux*ff, Philops. c. 29. Lucian was himself a Syrian, and might almost have conversed with John the Evangelist; he was conversant with the preaching and perhaps the writings of the apostles and their disciples, and had met with Elders'who told him of a blessed commonwealth, which he must forsake parents, children, and country to obtain; that if any one laid hold on his garment to detain him, he should let it go, and run thither naked; that the natives [aodtymtf] should not partake of this commonwealth, but that strangers should be called in from all parts, the barbarian and the slave, the poor and the deformed, Hermot. c 24. Here .are allusions to fact and doctrine, not to be mistaken. Ludan's meaning for the words latfmn and SAI/IOVIOV would therefore be nearly conclusive of the scripture meaning, did he make no express allusion to the Sa^na of the Gospel But he does. Who doth not know, he asks, that Syrian of Palestine, so skilled in freeing from^their tenors those who are possest by daemons, who, finding them falling down at the full moon, with distorted eyes, and foaming mouths, is able to raise them up and make them sound again, but charges them a round price for their liberation ? For, approaching [Page 9] in their fit, he asks the Daemon whence he entered the man's body, and the sick man is silent, but the Daemon, in the language of his Country, Greek or Barbarous as it happened, would tell whence and how he came. But he, by adjurations, and, if needful, by threats, expels the Daemon.? Philops. c 16. Here is a manifest description of the Scripture exorcisms, whether of those done by Christ and his disciples, or those of Simon Magus and his followers. All this will go far towards a demonstration, that the Daemons of the Gospel were malignant ghosts. As for the Enemy [Sata-nas], or the Accuser [Diabolus], he is always named in the singular, and so as to shew, that there is but one such; but the Daimones, or wicked ghosts, are his angels. The Angels of Prince Michael or Messiah are the spirits of the righteous, as may be made to appear from the vision of Daniel and various other Scriptures. Ast/ow, therefore, must usually be understood of the spirit of a man, and of a God, only in as much as the heathen Gods were once men: to which purpose, there cannot be more explicit words, than those of the Cumaean Sibyl, speaking of the heathen gods, and calling them A a t fx o ? a f &vpu^ouf yexuo? ciSwXsc XI/U.OI>TMV. Sib* cit. Lactant. Inst L. i. c 11. p. 66. ed. Gall, and see Max. Tyr. Diss. xv. c. 6. In theosophy, which is a mixture of theology with a sort of transcendental philosophy, and of both, with the errors of magic and eabalism, the word has other meanings or no-meanings. But this is not the proper occasion for us to dally with Plato ox Iamblichus.

Tripator의 두 번째 의미: 미신적 의미[편집]

The second sense is superstitious, and relates to the legend of his miraculous conception, implying that the fulness of the Triunal Deity¹⁵⁾ was incorporated in him; the same, if I mistake not, had, in the abominations of the Nephilim, been distributed among the three sons of Lamech the Cainite murderer, and all their three spirits were re-united in him, that he alone might re-establish [Page 10] on earth their witchcrafts and impiety, which the great rains had washed away.

¹⁵⁾ The incarnation of the entire Triad, is. not unknown in the Pagan fables. It occurs in the triplicity of Apollo and Diana; and all the Seven who sailed with Noah to the Arctic Mountain were called Septem Tri-Ones, the Seven Triunals (= 수메르 신화의 Apkallu?).

The Apkallu (Akkadian) or Abgal, (Sumerian) are seven Sumerian sages, demigods who are said to have been created by the god Enki (Akkadian: Ea) to establish culture and give civilization to mankind. They served as priests of Enki and as advisors or sages to the earliest "kings" or rulers of Sumer before the flood. They are credited with giving mankind the Me (moral code), the crafts, and the arts. They were seen as fish-like men who emerged from the sweet water Abzu. They are commonly represented as having the lower torso of a fish, or dressed as a fish.

The myth

According to the myth, human beings were initially unaware of the benefits of culture and civilization. The god Enki sent from Dilmun,^[211] amphibious half-fish, half-human creatures, who emerged from the oceans to live with the early human beings and teach them the arts and other aspects of civilization such as writing, law, temple and city building and agriculture.^[212] These creatures are known as the Apkallu. The Apkallu remained with human beings after teaching them the ways of civilization, and served as advisers to the kings.^[213]

Historical references

The Apkallus are referred to in several Sumerian myths in cuneiform literature. They are first referred to in the Erra Epic^[214] by the character of Marduk who asks "Where are the Seven Sages of the Apsu, the pure puradu fish, who just as their lord Ea, have been endowed with sublime wisdom?"^[215] According to the Temple Hymn of Ku'ara, all seven sages are said to have originally belonged to the city of Eridu. However, the names and order of appearance of these seven sages are varied in different sources. They are also referred to in the incantation series Bit Meseri's third tablet.^[216] In non-cuneiform sources, they find references in the writings of Berossus, the 3rd century BC, Babylonian priest of Bel Marduk. Berossus describes the appearance from the Persian Gulf of the first of these sages Oannes and describes him as a monster with two heads, the body of a fish and human feet. He then relates that more of these monsters followed. The seven sages are also referred to in an exorcistic text where they are described as bearing the likeness of carps.^[217]

Order of appearance

Though the order of the appearance of the sages is not precisely agreed upon, Conrad and Newing give an order of their appearance:

The first is Uanna, "who finished the plans for heaven and earth",

The second is Uannedugga "who was endowed with comprehensive intelligence",

Third came Enmedugga "who was allotted a good fate",

Next was Enmegalamma "who was born in a house",

fifth was Enmebulugga "who grew up on pasture land",

The sixth is An-Enlilda "the conjurer of the city of Eridu",

and last came Utuabzu "who ascended to heaven."

Conrad and Newing identify Utuabzu as the legendary Babylonian mythical figure, Adapa,^[218] while others identify Uanna with Adapa.^[219]

Ante and post-diluvian presence

These seven were each advisers for seven different kings and therefore result in two different lists, one of kings and one of Apkallu. Neither the sages nor the kings in these lists were genealogically related however.^[220] Apkallu and human beings were presumably capable of conjugal relationships since after the flood, the myth states that four Apkallu appeared. These were part human and part Apkallu, and included Nungalpirriggaldim, Pirriggalnungal, Pirriggalabsu, and Lu-nana who was only two-thirds Apkallu. These Apkallus are said to have committed various transgressions which angered the gods. These seeming negative deeds of the later Apkallu and their roles as wise councillors has led some scholars to equate them with the nephilim of Genesis 6:4.^[218] After these four post-diluvian Apkallus came the first completely human advisers, who were called ummanu. Gilgamesh, the mythical king of Uruk, is said to be the first king to have had an entirely human adviser.^[213] In recent times, scholars have also suggested the Apkallu are the model for Enoch, the ancestor of Noah.^[221]

Influence on later culture

Apkallu reliefs also appear in Assyrian palaces as guardians against evil spirits. They are one of the more prominent supernatural creatures that appear in the art of Ashurnasirpal II of the 9th century BC. They appear in one of three forms, bird-headed, human-headed or dressed in fish-skin cloaks.^[222]

See also

External links

"abgal" search at *Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature

틀:Wiktionarypar

Septentrional, meaning "of the north", is a word that is rarely used in English but is commonly used in Latin and in the Romance languages. Early maps of North America, mostly those before 1700, often refer to the northern- or northwestern-most unexplored areas of the continent at "Septentrional" or "America Septentrionalis", sometimes with slightly varying spellings.^{[note 1]} The term septentrional, actually the adjectival form of the noun septentrion, itself refers to the seven stars of the Big Dipper asterism (aka "Septentrion").

The OED gives the etymology as

[ad. L. septentrio, sing. of septentriōnēs, orig. septem triōnēs, the seven stars of the constellation of the Great Bear, f. septem seven + triōnes, pl. of trio plough-ox. Cf. F. septentrion.]^[223]

Usage

"Septentrional" is a more or less interchangeable term with "boreal." Ursa Major, the constellation containing the Big Dipper or Plough, dominates the skies of the North. There does not appear to be a truly comparable term linking the regions of the South with some prominent feature of the Southern Sky. The usual antonym for "septentrional" is "meridional." This word, however, refers not to a celestial feature in the South, but to the noonday sun.

Gene Wolfe used the word in The Book of the New Sun as part of the name of a palace guard.

The term, sometimes abbreviated to "Sep.", was used in historical astronomy to indicate the northern direction on the celestial globe, together with Meridional ("Mer.") for southern, Oriental ("Ori.") for eastern and Occidental ("Occ.") for western.^[224]

See also

Septentrionalist

Lamech (/ˈleɪmɛk/; לֶמֶךְ) is a person in the genealogies of Adam in the Book of Genesis. He is the sixth generation descendant of Cain (Genesis 4:18); his father was named Methusael, and he was responsible for the "Song of the Sword". He is also noted as the first polygamist mentioned in the Bible, taking two wives, Ada and Tselah (Zillah). He is not to be confused with the Lamech in Genesis 5.

Biblical context

Sandwiched between two genealogical lines, the passage describing Lamech, son of Methushael, descendant of Cain and his children is fairly substantive:

Then Lamech took for himself two wives: the name of one was Adah, and the name of the second was Zillah. And Adah bore Jabal. He was the father of those who dwell in tents and have livestock. His brother’s name was Jubal. He was the father of all those who play the harp and flute. And as for Zillah, she also bore Tubal-Cain, an instructor of every craftsman in bronze and iron. And the sister of Tubal-Cain was Naamah.^[225]
Then Lamech said to his wives:

"Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;

Wives of Lamech, listen to my speech!

For I have killed a man for wounding me,

Even a young man for hurting me.

If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold,

Then Lamech seventy-sevenfold."
— Genesis 4:19-24 (NKJV)

Names

There are various suggestions of the correct translations for the names:

Name	Hebrew	Possible translations
Lamech	לָמֶךְ	Pauper (via Hebrew), Priest/Servant of God (via Akkadian)
Adah	עָדָה	Ornament, Dawn
Zillah	צִלָּה	Shadow (Rashi)
Jabal	יָבָל	Shepherd
Jubal	יוּבָל	The ram's horn, Musician, (also) stream
Tubal-Cain	תּוּבַל קַיִן	Thou wilt be brought of Cain (not translating Cain), Blacksmith (translating Cain)
Naamah	נַעֲמָה	Beautiful, Pleasure

The older Septuagint, unlike the Masoretic Text, has the name Tubal rather than Tubal-Cain.

Translating the names as well, it is possible to read the text of the story of Lamech as:

God's servant took two wives, light and darkness. The light brought forth the shepherd, who was the father of tent-dwellers, and herdsmen, and his brother was the musician, who was the father of harpists and pipers. But the darkness brought forth the blacksmith, the forger of brass, and of iron, and his sister was pleasure.

Interpretation

When fully translated, the text has a strong resemblance simply to a basic mythology concerning the origin of the various forms of civilisation, the shepherds and musicians being products of the day, and pleasure being a product of the night. Blacksmiths, in carrying out their trade, are also associated with the darkness. Thus, in a sense, Lamech could be interpreted as a culture hero. Some of the names also appear to demonstrate punning - Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal rhyme, and appear to be derived from the same root - JBL (YVL in modern Hebrew): to bring forth, (also) to carry. A similar description existed amongst Phoenicians.

The names are instead interpreted in the Midrash as an attack on polygamy. Adah is there interpreted as the deposed one, implying that Lamech spurned her in favour of Zillah, whose own name is understood to mean she shaded herself [from Zillah at Lamech's side]. The Midrash consequently regards Adah as having been treated as a slave, tyrannised by her husband, who was at the beck and call of his mistress, Zillah. It further goes on to claim that part of the immorality, which had led God to flood the earth, was the polygamy practised by Lamech and his generation.

The rabbinical tradition is just as condemning of Naamah. While a minority, such as Abba ben Kahana, see Naamah as having become Noah's wife, and being so named because her conduct was pleasing to God, the majority of classical rabbinical sources consider her name to be due to her singing pleasant songs in worship of idols.

Song of the Sword

The last part of the tale of Lamech (Genesis 4:23–24), takes the form of a brief poem, which refers back to the curse of Cain. In the poem, Lamech's stance resembles that of a supreme warrior, able to avenge himself absolutely. However, no explanation of who Lamech supposedly killed is ever given in the Tanakh. Some scholars have proposed that it is connected to the invention, contextually by Tubal-Cain, of the sword, for which reason the poem is often referred to as the Song of the Sword. The poem may originate from the mysterious Book of the Wars of the Lord, though the greater context for it is likely to remain obscure.

However, this paucity of context did not stop a rabbinical tradition growing up around it. The Talmud and Midrash present an extensive legend, told, for example, by Rashi, in which Lamech first loses his sight from age, and had to be led by Tubal-Cain, the seventh generation from Cain. Tubal-Cain saw in the distance something that he first took for an animal, but it was actually Cain (still alive, due to the extensive life span of the antediluvians) whom Lamech had accidentally killed with an arrow. When they discovered who it was, Lamech, in sorrow, clapped his hands together, which (for an unclear reason) kills Tubal-Cain. In consequence, Lamech's wives desert him. A similar legend is preserved in the pseudepigraphic Second Book of Adam and Eve, Chapter XIII; in this version Tubal-Cain is not named, but is instead referred to as "the young shepherd." After Lamech claps his hands he strikes the young shepherd on the head. To ensure his death, he then smashed his head with a rock.

An alternate form of this negative attitude towards Lamech (such as Targum Pseudo-Jonathan) claims that even though Lamech did not kill anyone, his wives refused to associate with him and denied him sex, on the grounds that Cain's line was to be annihilated after seven generations. The poem is then given by Lamech to allay their fears. Other classical sources, such as Josephus, see the word seventy-seven as the number of sons which Lamech eventually had.

Extending on this classical view of Lamech is the Book of Moses, regarded in Mormonism as scripture. According to this Latter-day Saint text, Lamech entered into a secret pact with Satan, as had Cain before him, becoming a second Master Mahan. When Irad (an ancestor of Lamech) learned his secret and began to publicise it, Lamech murdered him. News of the murder was spread by Lamech's two wives, leading to his being cast out of society.

The Nephilim /ˈnɛf[미지원 입력]ˌlɪm/ were the offspring of the "sons of God" and the "daughters of men" according to Genesis 6:4; and giants who inhabited Canaan according to Numbers 13:33. A similar biblical Hebrew word with different vowel-sounds is used in Ezekiel 32:27 to refer to dead Philistine warriors.

Etymology

The Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon gives the meaning of Nephilim as "giants."^[226] Many suggested interpretations are based on the assumption that the word is a derivative of Hebrew verbal root n-ph-l "fall." Robert Baker Girdlestone ^[227] argued the word comes from the Hiphil causative stem, implying that the Nephilim are to be perceived as "those that cause others to fall down." Adam Clarke took it as passive, "fallen," "apostates." Ronald Hendel states that it is a passive form "ones who have fallen," equivalent grammatically to paqid "one who is appointed" (i.e. overseer), asir, "one who is bound," (i.e. prisoner) etc.^[228]^[229] According to the Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon, the basic etymology of the word Nephilim is "dub[ious]," and various suggested interpretations are "all very precarious."^[230]

The majority of ancient biblical versions, including the Septuagint, Theodotion, Latin Vulgate, Samaritan Targum, Targum Onkelos and Targum Neofiti, interpret the word to mean "giants."^[231] Symmachus translates it as "the violent ones"^[232]^[233]^[234] and Aquila's translation has been interpreted to mean either "the fallen ones"^[232] or "the ones falling [upon their enemies]."^[234]^[235]

In the Hebrew Bible

The term "Nephilim" occurs just twice in the Hebrew Bible, both in the Torah. The first is Genesis 6:1–4 NAS, immediately before the story of Noah's ark:

“

Now it came about, when men began to multiply on the face of the land, and daughters were born to them, that the sons of God saw that the daughters of men were beautiful; and they took wives for themselves, whomever they chose. Then the LORD said, "My Spirit shall not strive with man forever, because he also is flesh; nevertheless his days shall be one hundred and twenty years." The Nephilim were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of God came in to the daughters of men, and they bore children to them. Those were the mighty men who were of old, men of renown.

”

The second is Numbers 13:32–33 NAS, where the Twelve Spies report that they have seen fearsome giants in Canaan:

“

So they gave out to the sons of Israel a bad report of the land which they had spied out, saying, "The land through which we had gone, in spying it out, is a land that devours its inhabitants; and all the people whom we saw in it are men of great size. There also we saw the Nephilim (the sons of Anak are part of the Nephilim); and we became like grasshoppers in our own sight, and so we were in their sight.

”

The nature of the nephilim is complicated by the ambiguity of Genesis 6:4, which leaves it unclear whether they are the "sons of God" or their offspring who are the "mighty men of old, men of renown". Richard Hess in The Anchor Bible Dictionary takes it to mean that the nephilim are the offspring,^[236] as does P. W. Coxon in Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible.^[237]

Interpretations

There are effectively two views^[238] regarding the identity of the nephilim, which follow on from alternative views about the identity of the sons of God:

Offspring of Seth: The Qumran (Dead Sea Scroll) fragment 4Q417 (4QInstruction) contains the earliest known reference to the phrase "children of Seth", stating that God has condemned them for their rebellion. Other early references to the offspring of Seth rebelling from God and mingling with the daughters of Cain, are found in rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, Augustine of Hippo, Julius Africanus, and the Letters attributed to St. Clement. It is also the view expressed in the modern canonical Amharic Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.

Offspring of angels: A number of early sources refer to the "sons of heaven" as "Angels". The earliest such references^[239] seem to be in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Greek, and Aramaic Enochic literature, and in certain Ge'ez manuscripts of 1 Enoch (mss A–Q) and Jubilees^[240] used by western scholars in modern editions of the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.^[241] Also some Christian apologists shared this opinion, like Tertullian and especially Lactantius. The earliest statement in a secondary commentary explicitly interpreting this to mean that angelic beings mated with humans, can be traced to the rabbinical Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, and it has since become especially commonplace in modern-day Christian commentaries.

Fallen angels

Main article: Fallen angel

The New American Bible commentary draws a parallel to the Epistle of Jude and the statements set forth in Genesis, suggesting that the Epistle refers implicitly to the paternity of nephilim as heavenly beings who came to earth and had sexual intercourse with women.^[242] The footnotes of the Jerusalem Bible suggest that the Biblical author intended the nephilim to be an "anecdote of a superhuman race".^[243]

Some Christian commentators have argued against this view,^[244] ^[245]citing Jesus' statement that angels do not marry.^[246] Others believe that Jesus was only referring to angels in heaven.^[247]

Evidence cited in favor of the "fallen angels" interpretation includes the fact that the phrase "the sons of God" (Hebrew, בְּנֵי הָֽאֱלֹהִים; literally "sons of the gods") is used twice outside of Genesis chapter 6, in the Book of Job (1:6 and 2:1) where the phrase explicitly references angels. The Septuagint's translation of Genesis 6:2 renders this phrase as "the angels of God."틀:Synthesis-inline^[248]

Second Temple Judaism

Main articles: Book of Enoch, Book of Jubilees, and Watcher (angel)

The story of the nephilim is further elaborated in the Book of Enoch. The Greek, Aramaic, and main Ge'ez manuscripts of 1 Enoch and Jubilees obtained in the 19th century and held in the British Museum and Vatican Library, connect the origin of the nephilim with the fallen angels, and in particular with the egrḗgoroi (watchers). Samyaza, an angel of high rank, is described as leading a rebel sect of angels in a descent to earth to have sexual intercourse with human females:

“

And it came to pass when the children of men had multiplied that in those days were born unto them beautiful and comely daughters. And the angels, the children of the heaven, saw and lusted after them, and said to one another: 'Come, let us choose us wives from among the children of men and beget us children.' And Semjaza, who was their leader, said unto them: 'I fear ye will not indeed agree to do this deed, and I alone shall have to pay the penalty of a great sin.' And they all answered him and said: 'Let us all swear an oath, and all bind ourselves by mutual imprecations not to abandon this plan but to do this thing.' Then sware they all together and bound themselves by mutual imprecations upon it. And they were in all two hundred; who descended in the days of Jared on the summit of Mount Hermon, and they called it Mount Hermon, because they had sworn and bound themselves by mutual imprecations upon it...^[249]

”

In this tradition, the children of the Nephilim are called the Elioud, who are considered a separate race from the Nephilim, but they share the fate as the Nephilim.

According to these texts, the fallen angels who begat the nephilim were cast into Tartarus (Greek Enoch 20:2),^[250] a place of 'total darkness'. However, Jubilees also states that God granted ten percent of the disembodied spirits of the nephilim to remain after the flood, as demons, to try to lead the human race astray until the final Judgment.

In addition to Enoch, the Book of Jubilees (7:21–25) also states that ridding the Earth of these nephilim was one of God's purposes for flooding the Earth in Noah's time. These works describe the nephilim as being evil giants.

Targum Pseudo-Jonathan identifies the nephilim as Shemihaza and the angels in the name list from 1 Enoch.^[251] b Yoma 67, PRE22 and 1 QapGen ar ii 1 also identify the nephilim as the angels that fell.

There are also allusions to these descendants in the deuterocanonical books of Judith, Sirach 16:7, Baruch 3:26–28, and Wisdom of Solomon 14:6, and in the non-deuterocanonical 3 Maccabees 2:4.

In the New Testament Epistle of Jude 14–15 cites from 1 Enoch 1:9, which many scholars believe is based on Deuteronomy 33:2.^[252]^[253]^[254] To most commentators this confirms that the author of Jude regarded the Enochic interpretations of Genesis 6 as correct, however others^[255] have questioned this.

The descendants of Seth and Cain

Orthodox Judaism has taken a stance against the idea that Genesis 6 refers to angels or that angels could intermarry with men. Shimon bar Yochai pronounced a curse on anyone teaching this idea. Rashi and Nachmanides followed this. Pseudo-Philo, Biblical Antiquities 3:1–3 may also imply that the "sons of God" were human.^[256] Consequently, most Jewish commentaries and translations describe the Nephilim as being from the offspring of "sons of nobles", rather than from "sons of God" or "sons of angels".^[257] This is also the rendering suggested in the Targum Onqelos, Symmachus and the Samaritan Targum which read "sons of the rulers", where Targum Neophyti reads "sons of the judges".

Likewise, a long-held view among some Christians is that the "sons of God" who fathered the nephilim spoken of in the text, were in fact the formerly righteous descendants of Seth who rebelled, while the "daughters of men" were the unrighteous descendants of Cain, and the nephilim the offspring of their union.^[258] This view, dating to at least the 1st century AD in Jewish literature as described above, is also found in Christian sources from the 3rd century if not earlier, with references throughout the Clementine literature,^[259] as well as in Sextus Julius Africanus,^[260] Ephrem the Syrian^[261] and others. Holders of this view^[262] have looked for support in Jesus' statement that "in the days before the flood they (humans) were marrying and giving in marriage"^[263]

Some individuals and groups, including St. Augustine, John Chrysostom, and John Calvin, take the view of Genesis 6:2 that the "Angels" who fathered the nephilim referred to certain human males from the lineage of Seth, who were called sons of God probably in reference to their prior covenant with Yahweh (cf. Deuteronomy 14:1; 32:5); according to these sources, these men had begun to pursue bodily interests, and so took wives of the daughters of men, e.g., those who were descended from Cain or from any people who did not worship God.

This also is the view of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church,^[264] supported by their own Ge'ez manuscripts and Amharic translation of the Haile Selassie Bible—where the canonical books of 1 Enoch and Jubilees differ from western academic editions.^[265] The "Sons of Seth view" is also the view presented in a few extra-Biblical, yet ancient works, including Clementine literature, the 3rd century Cave of Treasures, and the ca. 6th Century Ge'ez work The Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan. In these sources, these offspring of Seth were said to have disobeyed God, by breeding with the Cainites and producing wicked children "who were all unlike", thus angering God into bringing about the Deluge, as in the Conflict:

“

Certain wise men of old wrote concerning them, and say in their [sacred] books, that angels came down from heaven, and mingled with the daughters of Cain, who bare unto them these giants. But these [wise men] err in what they say. God forbid such a thing, that angels who are spirits, should be found committing sin with human beings. Never, that cannot be. And if such a thing were of the nature of angels, or Satans, that fell, they would not leave one woman on earth, undefiled... But many men say, that angels came down from heaven, and joined themselves to women, and had children by them. This cannot be true. But they were children of Seth, who were of the children of Adam, that dwelt on the mountain, high up, while they preserved their virginity, their innocence and their glory like angels; and were then called 'angels of God.' But when they transgressed and mingled with the children of Cain, and begat children, ill-informed men said, that angels had come down from heaven, and mingled with the daughters of men, who bear them giants.

”

Arguments from culture and mythology

In Aramaic culture, the term niyphelah refers to the Constellation of Orion, and nephilim to the offspring of Orion in mythology.^[266] However the Brown-Driver-Briggs lexicon notes this as a "dubious etymology" and "all very precarious".^[226]

J. C. Greenfield mentions that "it has been proposed that the tale of the Nephilim, alluded to in Genesis 6 is based on some of the negative aspects of the apkallu tradition".^[267] The apkallu in Sumerian mythology were seven legendary culture heros from before the Flood, of human descent, but possessing extraordinary wisdom from the gods, and one of the seven apkallu, Adapa, was therefore called "son of Ea", despite his human origin.^[268]

Ezekiel's "mighty fallen": nephilim as ancient warriors

Ezekiel 32:27 speaks of "the fallen mighty (gibborim nophlim, גִּבֹּורִים נֹפְלִים) of the uncircumcised, which are gone down (yardu, יָרְדֽוּ) to the grave with their weapons of war"; a change to the vowels would produce the reading gibborim nephilim.^[269]^[270]^[271]

Identification with fossilized remains

Cotton Mather believed that fossilized leg bones and teeth discovered near Albany, New York, in 1705 were the remains of Nephilim who perished in Noah's flood. He wrote that "The Giants that once groaned under the waters are now under the Earth, and their Dead Bones are lively Proofs of the Mosaic history." Paleontologists now classify these as mastodon remains.^[272]^[273]

Related terms

In the Hebrew Bible, there are a number of other words that, like "Nephilim", are sometimes translated as "giants":

Emim—the fearful ones
Rephaim—the dead ones
Anakim—the [long]-necked ones
Gibborim

Popular culture

Main article: Nephilim in popular culture

See also

The Cain Tradition
Cambion
Demigod
Elioud
Fallen angel
Fields of the Nephilim (a goth rock band formed in 1984)
Gibborim (biblical)
Gigantes
Grigori
Kenites
List of giants in mythology and folklore
Serpent seed

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). 〈Nephilim〉. 《Easton's Bible Dictionary》 New a revis판. T. Nelson and Sons.

External links

The Sons of Noah, or Table of nations, is an extensive list of descendants of Noah appearing in Genesis 10 of the Hebrew Bible, representing a traditional ethnology. The significance of Noah, according to Genesis, is that the population of the Earth was completely destroyed during the Flood because of the wickedness of the inhabitants, and Noah and his family were the sole eight survivors to continue and repopulate the human race. Thus the view of history in the Bible is that all humans on Earth are descended from Noah's family.

Historicity and coverage

A literal interpretation of Genesis 10 suggests that the present population of the world was descended from Noah's three sons: Shem, Ham, and Japheth, and their wives. Until the mid-19th century, this was taken by many as historical fact, and still is by many Orthodox Jews, Muslims and Christians.^{[출처 필요]}

There are disputes about how many of the peoples of the Earth this story was intended to cover, and as to its accuracy. Many Jews and Christians believe that the table applies to the entire population of the earth, while others read it as a guide only to local ethnic groups.^{[출처 필요]}

The sons of Noah are not mentioned in the Qur'an, except for the fact that one of the sons was among the people who did not follow his own father, not among the believers and thus was washed away in the flood. Also the Qur'an indicates a regional flood rather than a global one. A great calamity, enough to have destroyed Noah's people, but to have saved him and his generations to come.^[274] The Qur'an hints to the sons of Noah in 37:75-77 Muhammad Muhsin Khan's translation: "And indeed Nuh (Noah) invoked Us, and We are the Best of those who answer (the request). And We rescued him and his family from the great distress (i.e. drowning), And, his progeny, them We made the survivors (i.e. Shem, Ham and Japheth)." In International Sahih translation: "And Noah had certainly called Us, and [We are] the best of responders. And We saved him and his family from the great affliction. And We made his descendants those remaining [on the earth]" In Marmaduke Pickthall translation: "And Noah verily prayed unto Us, and gracious was the Hearer of his prayer. And We saved him and his household from the great distress, And made his seed the survivors," In Shakir translation: "And Nuh did certainly call upon Us, and most excellent answerer of prayer are We. And We delivered him and his followers from the mighty distress. And We made his offspring the survivors." ^[275]

Table of nations

According to Genesis 10, Noah had three sons:

Ham, forefather of the southern peoples (Hamitic)
Shem, forefather of the middle peoples (Semitic)
Japheth, forefather of the northern peoples (Japhetic Eurasia)

The names of these sons are thought to have significance related to Semitic roots. Ham means "warm".^[276] Shem merely means "name" or "renown", "prosperity".^[277] Japheth means "open".^[278]

It then proceeds to detail their descendants. The identification of several of the first generation is aided by the inclusion of the second, although several of their identifications are less certain. (The copy of the table in the biblical book of 1 Chronicles chapter 1 has occasional variations in the second generation, most likely caused by the similarity of Hebrew letters such as Resh and Daleth). Forms ending in -im are plurals, probably indicating names of peoples, and not intended as the name of a single person.

Japheth's descendants

Main article: Japhetic

Gomer, son of Japheth. Usually identified with the migratory Gimirru (Cimmerians) of Assyrian inscriptions, attested from about 720 BC.^{[출처 필요]}
- Ashkenaz, son of Gomer. It has been conjectured that this name arose from a misprint in Hebrew for "Ashkuz", by reading a nun for a vav. Ashkuz and Ishkuz were names used for the Scythians, who first appear in Assyrian records in the late 8th century in the Caucasus region, and at times occupied vast areas of Europe and Asia. Additionally, in Medieval Hebrew, Germany is known as Ashkenaz, and is the origin of the term Ashkenazic Jews.^{[출처 필요]}
- Riphath (Diphath in Chronicles), son of Gomer. Identification with Paphlagonians of later antiquity has been proposed, but this is uncertain.^{[출처 필요]}
- Togarmah, son of Gomer. Some Armenian and Georgian traditions have claimed descent from Togarmah; other authors have attempted to connect them with Turkic peoples.^{[출처 필요]}
Magog, son of Japheth. This name appears in the Assyrian texts as mat gugu, The Land of Gugu, and means Lydia. Gugu is known in Greek texts as Gyges of Lydia, a historical king of Lydia and the founder of the Mermnad dynasty (ruled c. 716 - 678 BC). Is claimed as an ancestor in both Irish and Hungarian medieval traditions. Flavius Josephus, followed by Jerome and Nennius, makes him ancestor of the Scythians who dwelt north of the Black Sea. According to Johannes Magnus, Magog migrated to Sweden (via Finland) 88 years after the flood, and one of his sons was the first king of Sweden. His accounts became accepted by the Swedes, and the numbering of Swedish Monarchs was altered accordingly. Magog is also sometimes said to be the ancestor of the Goths, Finns, Huns, and Slavs.
Madai, son of Japheth. The Medes of Northwest Iran first appear in Assyrian inscriptions as Amadai in about 844 BC.^{[출처 필요]}
Javan, son of Japheth. This name is said to be connected with the Ionians, one of the original Greek tribes.^{[출처 필요]}
- Elishah, son of Javan. Identifications have been proposed with various Aegean peoples such as Elis of northwestern Peloponnesos, or Ellis of Phthia.^{[출처 필요]}
- Tarshish (Tarshishah in Chronicles), son of Javan. Has been variously connected with Tarsus in Anatolia, or Tartessus in southern Spain.^{[출처 필요]}
- Kittim, offspring of Javan. Usually connected with Kition in Cyprus, but name appears in other texts with a variety of interpretations.^{[출처 필요]}
- Dodanim (Rodanim in Chronicles), offspring of Javan. Usually connected with large Aegean island of Rhodes near the coast of Asia Minor.^{[출처 필요]}

Note: the Greek Septuagint (LXX) of Genesis includes an additional son of Japheth, "Elisa", in between Javan and Tubal; however, as this name is found in no other ancient source, nor in I Chronicles, he is almost universally agreed to be a duplicate of Elisha, son of Javan. Nevertheless, the presence of Elisa (as well as that of Cainan son of Arpachshad, below) in the Greek Bible accounts for the traditional enumeration among early Christian sources of 72 families and languages, from the 72 names in this chapter, as opposed to the 70 names, families and languages usually found in Jewish sources.^{[출처 필요]}

Tubal, son of Japheth. He is connected with Tabal, an Anatolian kingdom, and by way of the ancient tribe of the Tibareni both with the Iberians of the Caucasus and those of the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal). Sometimes he is also seen as the ancestor of the Illyrians and Italics. In the book of Jubilees he was bequeathed the three 'tongues' of Europe.^{[출처 필요]}
Meshech, son of Japheth. He is regarded as the eponym of the Mushki tribe of Anatolia. The Mushki are sometimes considered one of the ancestors of the Georgians, but also became connected with the Sea Peoples who roved the Mediterranean Sea.
Tiras, son of Japheth. This name is usually connected with that of Thracians, an ancient nation first appearing in written records around 700 BC. It has also been associated with some of the Sea Peoples such as Tursha and Tyrsenoi, with the river Tiras (Dniester), and sometimes with the Anatolian region of Troas, dating to the later 13th century BC. In tractate Yoma, of the Talmud, it states that Tiras is Persia.^{[출처 필요]}

Japheth is traditionally seen as the ancestor of Europeans, as well as some more eastern nations; thus Japhetic has been used as a synonym for Caucasians. Caucasian itself derives in part from the assumption that the tribe of Japheth developed its distinctive racial characteristics in the Caucasus, where Mount Ararat is located. The term Japhetic was also applied by the early linguists (brothers Grimm, William Jones, Rasmus C. Rask and others) to what later became known as the Indo-European language group, on the assumption that, if descended from Japheth, the principal languages of Europe would have a common origin, which apart from Uralic, Kartvelian, Pontic, Nakh-Dagestanian, and Basque, appears to be the case. In a conflicting sense, the term was also used by the Soviet linguist Nikolai Marr in his Japhetic theory intended to demonstrate that the languages of the Caucasus formed part of a once-widespread pre-Indo-European language group.^{[출처 필요]}

Ham's descendants

Main article: Hamitic

Cush, son of Ham. The Empire of Kush to the south of Egypt is known from at least 1970 BC, but this name has also been associated by some with the Kassites who inhabited the Zagros area of Mesopotamia, the Sumerian city of Kish.^{[출처 필요]}
- Seba, son of Cush. Has been connected with both Yemen and Ethiopia, with much confusion with Sheba below. (The Shibboleth-like division amongst the Sabaeans into Sheba and Seba is acknowledged elsewhere, for example in Psalm 72, leading scholars to suspect that this is not a mistaken duplication of the same name, but a genuine historical division. The significance of this division is not yet completely understood, though it may simply reflect which side of the sea each was on.)^{[출처 필요]}
- Havilah, son of Cush. Usually considered to be a part of the Arabian peninsula near the Red Sea.^{[출처 필요]}
- Sabtah, son of Cush. Sometimes connected with Hadhramis (their ancient capital being Saubatha) in eastern Yemen.^{[출처 필요]}
- Raamah, son of Cush. Has been connected with Rhammanitae mentioned by Strabo in the southwest Arabian peninsula, and with an Arabian city of Regmah at the head of Persian Gulf.^{[출처 필요]}
  - Sheba, son of Raamah. Has been connected with Sabaeans and peoples on either side of the narrowest part of the Red Sea.
  - Dedan, son of Raamah. Apparently a region of the Tabuk Province of Saudi Arabia.^{[출처 필요]}
- Sabtechah, son of Cush. Possibly Sabaiticum Ostium, Sabaeans living around a Eritrea.^{[출처 필요]}
- Nimrod, son of Cush, also identified as a mighty hunter before God, and the founder of ancient Babel, Akkad, Sumer, and possibly cities in Assyria. The Hebrew wording of Genesis 10:11 has led to some ambiguity as to whether Asshur here is the son of Shem or a city built by Nimrod; either interpretation can be found in various modern versions.^{[출처 필요]}
Mizraim, son of Ham. Mizraim is a name for Upper and Lower Egypt and literally translates as Ta-Wy in Ancient Egyptian ("The Two Lands"). The -aim in Mizraim represents dual number. Arabic-speaking modern Egyptians refer to their country as Miṣr.
- Ludim, offspring of Mizraim. Sometimes considered a scribal error for Lubim, a reference to the Libu of Eastern Libya.^{[출처 필요]}
- Anamim, offspring of Mizraim. There is a reference in an Assyrian inscription from Sargon II's time to Anami, a tribe located in Cyrene, Libya.^{[출처 필요]}
- Lehabim, offspring of Mizraim. Identification uncertain, possibly Libya.^{[출처 필요]}
- Naphtuhim, offspring of Mizraim. Has been connected with Na-Ptah, the Egyptian form of Memphis.^{[출처 필요]}
- Pathrusim, offspring of Mizraim. Possibly connected with Egyptian word Pa-To-Ris meaning southerners.^{[출처 필요]}
- Casluhim ("out of whom came Philistim").(Genesis 10:14, 1Chronicles 1:12)
- Caphtorim, offspring of Mizraim, associated with Caphtor in northeast Egypt near Philistia.(Genesis 10:14, 1Chronicles 1:12)
Phut, son of Ham. Ancient authorities are fairly universal in identifying Phut with the Libyans (Lebu and Pitu), the earliest neighbors of Egypt to the west. (Although more recent theories have tried to connect Phut with Phoenicia, or the currently unidentified Land of Punt.)^{[출처 필요]}
Canaan, son of Ham. This is known to be the name of a nation and people who settled the Eastern shore of the Mediterranean in what is now called Israel and Lebanon and Syria.
- Sidon, firstborn son of Canaan, and name one of the oldest city-states on the Phoenician coast.^{[출처 필요]}
- Heth, son of Canaan, considered ancestor of "Hittites", a people of Canaan, possibly connected with Hatti, a powerful entity in Anatolia.^{[출처 필요]}
- "the Jebusite", offspring of Canaan, a tribe that lived around Jerusalem, that was formerly known as Jebus according to the Books of Chronicles.(1Chronicles 11:4)
- "the Amorite", offspring of Canaan, a people living between the Jordan and Euphrates rivers by at least 2000 BC, known as Amurru to the Akkadians and Egyptians.^{[출처 필요]}
- "the Girgasites", offspring of Canaan
- "the Hivite", offspring of Canaan
- "the Arkite", offspring of Canaan, probably city-state of Arqa in Phoenicia.^{[출처 필요]}
- "the Sinite", offspring of Canaan, possibly connected with the Wilderness of Sin, or the Sinn river in Syria.^{[출처 필요]}
- "the Arvadite", offspring of Canaan, refers to the Phoenician city-state of Arwad, now; inhabited island in Syria.^{[출처 필요]}
- "the Zemarite", offspring of Canaan, refers to the Phoenician city-state of Zemar.^{[출처 필요]}
- "the Hamathite", offspring of Canaan, refers to Syrian city of Hamath.^{[출처 필요]}

Africans were thus anciently understood to be the sons of Ham, particularly his descendant Cush, as Cushites are referred to throughout scripture as being the inhabitants of East Africa, and they and the Yoruba still trace their ancestry through Ham today. Beginning in the 9th century with the Jewish grammarian Judah ibn Quraysh, a relationship between the Semitic and Cushitic languages was seen; modern linguists group these two families, along with the Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, and Omotic language groups into the larger Afro-Asiatic language family. In addition, languages in the southern half of Africa are now seen as belonging to several distinct families independent of the Afro-Asiatic group. Some now discarded Hamitic theories have become viewed as racist; in particular a theory proposed in the 19th century by Speke, that the Tutsi were supposedly Hamitic and thus inherently superior.^[279]

The 17th-century Jesuit, Athanasius Kircher, thought that the Chinese had also descended from Ham, via Egyptians.^[280]

Shem's descendants

Main article: Semitic

Shem is traditionally held to be the ancestor of the Semitic people; Hebrews and Arabs consider themselves sons of Shem through Arpachshad (thus, Semites).

In the view of some 17th-century European scholars (e.g., John Webb), the people of China and India descended from him as well.^[280]

Elam, son of Shem. The Elamites called their land Haltamti and had an empire (capital Susa) in what is now Khuzistan, modern Iran. Elamite, however, is not a Semitic language.
Ashur, son of Shem, associated with Assyria, Bangladesh, Tripura and other north-eastern states of India.
Arpachshad, (also transcribed Arphaxad) son of Shem. He or his immediate descendants are credited in Second Temple tradition^[281] with founding the city of Ur of the Chaldees, usually identified (following archaeologist Woolley) with the Sumerian city of Ur on the south bank of the Euphrates.^[282]
Lud, son of Shem. Most ancient authorities assign this name to the Lydians of Eastern Anatolia.
Aram, son of Shem. There are references to a campaign against a place called 'Arame' as early as 2300 BC in the inscriptions of Naram-Sin of Akkad^[283]
- Uz, son of Aram.
- Hul, son of Aram.
- Gether, son of Aram.
- Mash, son of Aram (1 Chronicles has Meshech).

Arpachshad's family (genealogy of Abraham and the line of Joktan)

The genealogy at this point lists several generations of Arpachshad's descendants, on account of their connection with the Hebrew nation and the rest of Genesis:

Cainan is listed as the son of Arpachshad and father of Shelah in some ancient sources. The name is omitted in the Hebrew Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible, but the Greek Septuagint and genealogy of Jesus in St. Luke 3:36 include the name.
Shelah (also transcribed Salah) son of Arpachshad (or Cainan).
- Eber son of Shelah.
  - Peleg, son of Eber. In the table, it is said that the Earth was divided in the days of Peleg. A threefold division among Ham, Shem and Japheth preceding the Tower of Babel incident, is elaborated on in several ancient sources.^[284]
  - Joktan, son of Eber.

Joktan's sons

Almodad, son of Joktan. According to Easton's Bible Dictionary "Almodad" means "immeasurable", however it has also been translated as "not measured",^[285] "measurer",^[286] "measure of God",^[287] "the beloved," or, "God is beloved",^[288] "God is love",^[289] and "God is a friend".^[290]^[291]

Sheleph, son of Joktan. Sheleph means "drawing out" or "who draws out" (Hitchcock's Bible Dictionary).^{[출처 필요]}
Hazarmaveth, son of Joktan. Hazarmaveth, also transcribed Hazarmaueth, means "dwelling of death" (Hitchcock's Bible Dictionary).^{[출처 필요]}
Jerah, son of Joktan.
Hadoram, son of Joktan. According to Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's footnotes: "Hadarom: Some interpret this as denoting 'the south.'^{[출처 필요]}
Uzal, son of Joktan.
Diklah son of Joktan.
Obal, son of Joktan.
Abimael, son of Joktan.
Sheba, son of Joktan.
Ophir, son of Joktan.
Havilah, son of Joktan.
Jobab, son of Joktan.

In historiography

In Flavius Josephus

Geographic identifications of Flavius Josephus, c. 100 AD

The 1st century Jewish-Roman historian Flavius Josephus, in Antiquities of the Jews Book 1, chapter 6, was among the first of many who attempted to assign known ethnicities to some of the names listed in Genesis chapter 10. His assignments became the basis for most later authors, and were as follows:^[292]

Gomer: "those whom the Greeks now call Galatians, [Galls,] but were then called Gomerites".
- Aschanax (Ashkenaz): "Aschanaxians, who are now called by the Greeks Rheginians".
- Riphath: "Ripheans, now called Paphlagonians".
- Thrugramma (Togarmah): "Thrugrammeans, who, as the Greeks resolved, were named Phrygians".
Magog: "Magogites, but who are by the Greeks called Scythians".
Madai: "the Madeans, who are called Medes, by the Greeks".
Javan: "Ionia, and all the Grecians".
- Elisa: "Eliseans... they are now the Aeolians".
- Tharsus (Tarshish): "Tharsians, for so was Cilicia of old called". He also derives the name of their city Tarsus from Tharsus.
- Cethimus (Kittim): "The island Cethima: it is now called Cyprus". He also derives the Greek name of their city, which he spells Citius, from Cethimus.
Thobel (Tubal): "Thobelites, who are now called Iberes".
Mosoch (Meshech): "Mosocheni... now they are Cappadocians." He also derives the name of their capital Mazaca from Mosoch.
Thiras (Tiras): "Thirasians; but the Greeks changed the name into Thracians".

Chus (Cush): "Ethiopians... even at this day, both by themselves and by all men in Asia, called Chusites".
- Sabas (Seba): Sabeans
- Evilas (Havilah): "Evileans, who are called Getuli".
- Sabathes (Sabta): "Sabathens, they are now called by the Greeks Astaborans".
- Sabactas (Sabteca): Sabactens
- Ragmus (Raamah): Ragmeans
  - Judadas (Dedan): "Judadeans, a nation of the western Ethiopians".
  - Sabas (Sheba): Sabeans
Mesraim (Misraim): Egypt, which he says is called Mestre in his country.
- "Now all the children of Mesraim, being eight in number, possessed the country from Gaza to Egypt, though it retained the name of one only, the Philistim; for the Greeks call part of that country Palestine. As for the rest, Ludieim, and Enemim, and Labim, who alone inhabited in Libya, and called the country from himself, Nedim, and Phethrosim, and Chesloim, and Cephthorim, we know nothing of them besides their names; for the Ethiopic war which we shall describe hereafter, was the cause that those cities were overthrown."
Phut: Libya. He states that a river and region "in the country of Moors" was still called Phut by the Greeks, but that it had been renamed "from one of the sons of Mesraim, who was called Lybyos".
Canaan: Judea, which he called "from his own name Canaan".
- Sidonius (Sidon): The city of Sidonius, "called by the Greeks Sidon".
- Amathus (Hamathite): "Amathine, which is even now called Amathe by the inhabitants, although the Macedonians named it Epiphania, from one of his posterity."
- Arudeus (Arvadite): "the island Aradus".
- Arucas (Arkite): "Arce, which is in Libanus".
- "But for the seven others [sons of Canaan], Chetteus, Jebuseus, Amorreus, Gergesus, Eudeus, Sineus, Samareus, we have nothing in the sacred books but their names, for the Hebrews overthrew their cities".

Elam: "Elamites, the ancestors of the Persians".
Ashur: Assyrians, and their city Niniveh built by Ashur.
Arphaxad: "Arphaxadites, who are now called Chaldeans".
- Sala
  - Heber (Eber): "from whom they originally called the Jews Hebrews".
    - Phaleg (Peleg): He notes that he was so named "because he was born at the dispersion of the nations to their several countries; for Phaleg among the Hebrews signifies division".
    - Joctan
      - "Elmodad, Saleph, Asermoth, Jera, Adoram, Aizel, Decla, Ebal, Abimael, Sabeus, Ophir, Euilat, and Jobab. These inhabited from Cophen, an Indian river, and in part of Asia adjoining to it."
Aram: "Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians".
- Uz: "Uz founded Trachonitis and Damascus: this country lies between Palestine and Celesyria".
- Ul (Hul): Armenia
- Gather (Gether): Bactrians
- Mesa (Mesh): "Mesaneans; it is now called Charax Spasini".
Laud (Lud): "Laudites, which are now called Lydians".

In Hippolytus

The chronicle of Hippolytus of Rome (c. 234), existing in numerous Latin and Greek copies,^[293] make another attempt to assign ethnicities to the names in Genesis 10, in some cases similar to those of Josephus, but with many differences, which are:

Gomer – Cappadocians
- Ashkenaz – Sarmatians
- Riphath – Sauromatians
- Togarmah – Armenians
Magog – Galatians, Celts
Javan
- Elishah – Siculi (Chron Pasc: Trojans and Phrygians)
- Tarshish – Iberians, Tyrrhenians
- Kittim – Macedonians, Romans, Latins
Tubal – "Hettali" (?)
Meshech – Illyrians
Misraim
- Ludim – Lydians
- Anamim – Pamphylians
- Pathrusim – Lycians (var.: Cretans)
- Caphtorim – Cilicians
Put – Troglodytes
Canaan – Afri and Phoenicians
- Arkite – Tripolitanians
Lud – Halizones
Arpachshad
- Cainan – "those east of the Sarmatians" (one variant)
  - Joktan
    - Elmodad – Indians
    - Saleph – Bactrians
    - Hazamaveth, Sheba – Arabs
    - Adoram – Carmanians
    - Uzal – Arians (var.: Parthians)
    - Abimael – Hyrcanians
    - Obal – Scythians
    - Ophir – Armenians
    - Deklah – Gedrosians
Aram – "Etes" ?
- Hul – Lydians (var: Colchians)
- Gether – "Gaspeni" ?
- Mash – Mossynoeci (var: Mosocheni)

The Chronicle of 354, the Panarion by Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 375), the Chronicon Paschale (c. 627), the History of Albania by the Georgian historian Movses Kaghankatvatsi (7th century), and the Synopsis of Histories by John Skylitzes (c. 1057) follow the identifications of Hippolytus.

In Jerome

Jerome, writing c. 390, provided an 'updated' version of Josephus' identifications in his Hebrew Questions on Genesis. His list is substantially identical to that of Josephus in almost all respects, but with the following notable differences:

Thubal, son of Japheth: "Iberians, who are also the Spaniards from whom derive the Celtiberians, although certain people suppose them to be the Italians."
Gether, son of Aram: "Acarnanii or Carians"
Mash, son of Aram: Maeones

In Isidore of Seville and later authors

The scholar Isidore of Seville, in his Etymologiae (c. 600), repeats all of Jerome's identifications, but with these minor changes:^[294]

Joktan, son of Eber: Indians
Saleph, son of Joktan: Bactrians
Magog, son of Japheth: "Scythians and Goths"
Ashkenaz, son of Gomer: "Sarmatians, whom the Greeks call Rheginians".

Isidore's identifications for Japheth's sons were repeated in the Historia Britonum attributed to Nennius. Isidore's identifications also became the basis for numerous later mediaeval scholars, remaining so until the Age of Discovery prompted newer theories, such as that of Benito Arias Montano (1571), who proposed connecting Meshech with Moscow, and Ophir with Peru.

Shem as the father of the Far East

In the view of some 17th-century European scholars (e.g., John Webb), the people of China and India descended from Shem.^[280] Both Webb and the French Jesuits belonging to the Figurist school (late 17th-early 18th century) went even further, identifying the legendary Emperor Yao of Chinese history with Noah himself.^[280]

Extrabiblical sons of Noah

There exist various traditions in post-biblical sources claiming that Noah had children other than Shem, Ham, and Japheth — born variously before, during, or after the Deluge.

According to the Quran (Hud v. 42–43), Noah had another unnamed son who refused to come aboard the Ark, instead preferring to climb a mountain, where he drowned. Some later Islamic commentators give his name as either Yam or Kan'an.^[295]

According to Irish mythology, as found in the Annals of the Four Masters and elsewhere, Noah had another son named Bith, who was not allowed aboard the Ark, and who attempted to colonise Ireland with 54 persons, only to be wiped out in the Deluge.

Some 9th-century manuscripts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles assert that Sceafa was the fourth son of Noah, born aboard the Ark, from whom the House of Wessex traced their ancestry; in William of Malmesbury's version of this genealogy (c. 1120), Sceaf is instead made a descendant of Strephius, the fourth son born aboard the Ark (Gesta Regnum Anglorum).

An early Arabic work known as Kitab al-Magall or the Book of Rolls (part of Clementine literature) mentions Bouniter, the fourth son of Noah, born after the flood, who allegedly invented astronomy and instructed Nimrod.^[296] Variants of this story with often similar names for Noah's fourth son are also found in the c. 5th century Ge'ez work Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan (Barvin), the c. 6th century Syriac book Cave of Treasures (Yonton), the 7th century Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius (Ionitus^[297]), the Syriac Book of the Bee 1221 (Yônatôn), the Hebrew Chronicles of Jerahmeel, c. 12th–14th century (Jonithes), and throughout Armenian apocryphal literature, where he is usually referred to as Maniton; as well as in works by Petrus Comestor c. 1160 (Jonithus), Godfrey of Viterbo 1185 (Ihonitus), Michael the Syrian 1196 (Maniton), Abu Salih the Armenian c. 1208 (Abu Naiţur); Jacob van Maerlant c. 1270 (Jonitus), and Abraham Zacuto 1504 (Yoniko).

Martin of Opava (c. 1250), later versions of the Mirabilia Urbis Romae, and the Chronicon Bohemorum of Giovanni di Marignola (1355) make Janus (i.e., the Roman deity) the fourth son of Noah, who moved to Italy, invented astrology, and instructed Nimrod.

According to the monk Annio da Viterbo (1498), the Hellenistic Babylonian writer Berossus had mentioned 30 children born to Noah after the Deluge, including sons named Tuiscon, Prometheus, Iapetus, Macrus, "16 titans", Cranus, Granaus, Oceanus, and Tipheus. Also mentioned are daughters of Noah named Araxa "the Great", Regina, Pandora, Crana, and Thetis. However, Annio's manuscript is widely regarded today as having been a forgery.^[298]

See also

Notes

Dillmann, A., Genesis: Critically and Exegetically Expounded, Vol. 1, Edinburgh, UK, T. and T. Clark, 1897, 314.
Kautzsch, E.F.: quoted by James Orr, "The Early Narratives of Genesis," in The Fundamentals, Vol. 1, Los Angeles, CA, Biola Press, 1917.

External links

Latin Vulgate and English Douay-Rheims
English Septuagint
King James Version and Revised Standard Version
Jewish Encyclopedia: Entry for "Genealogy" - a 1901/6 view (the early days of comparative linguistics and the documentary hypothesis).
The connection of modern nations to the table according to a creationist source (with Europe as descended from the tribes of Israel, and the UK and USA from Joseph (but by different sons)).
Custance, Arthur C., The Roots of the Nations. A more standard creationist account that associates Japheth with Europe.

Etymology에 관련된 사항들: Ourion = Aour (빛) + Ion (비둘기)[편집]

The Greek etymology, ludicrous (터무니없는) and unseemly (꼴사나운, 부적절한) as it is, is so far (어느 정도까지만) true, that Ourion is the older and better spelling.

It is compounded of a word, [immeasurably ancient, and regarded as an Hebrew word, by those who maintain that Hebrew is the mother of languages] Aour, Our, Ur, meaning Light, or Fire, [the Urim of the Lord, the [greek] ouranos of the Greeks, and urere of the Latins] or, if you will, that higher principle to which they both may belong;

and Ion, a dove.

Not only both of these Things, but both of these Words, are so much concerned in the Mysteries¹⁶⁾ of true religion from the days of Adam, and of Noah, to those of Christ, as to induce, at the very first sight, a belief, that Paganism was rather, in its origin, Haeretical, than quite new or distinct.

Mysteries의 의미에 대하여[편집]

¹⁶⁾ It is well to explain this word (즉 Mysteries) also, upon first using it. A mystery is a religious metaphor whereby spiritual things are likened to temporal, or one temporal thing to another; as where moral purification is likened to ablution (목욕 재계) with water, or Rome to Babylon.

Where a mystery is coupled with something that is of duty to be done, we term it a Sacrament; and as matrimony (결혼 생활) is ordained (임명하다), and is also a great Mystery, it is a hard saying to maintain that it is no Sacrament, unless for this reason, that caelibacy is lawful to individuals, though marriage be ordained to the world at large.

Every Mystery is a Similitude, Type, or Symbol; and such similitudes, being often-times obscure, and wanting interpretation to the vulgar, and, in cases of prophecy, being often susceptible of no interpretation, till the lapse of many ages, and a fulfilment either partial or complete, should have explained them, the word (즉, mystery) came to be misapplied to any thing obscure (즉 수수께끼, 모호함).

Aour = Fire = Solar Light = Gold에 대하여[편집]

The appearance of Fire, and of Solar Light, is like that of Gold, which metal did therefore, by its colour and brightness, obtain the same name, Aour; the or of France, oro of Spain, aurum and auro of ancient and modern Italy, and the [greek] auron of the Greeks.

The last is a word of extraordinary rarity, but is supposed to have been used by Dosiades [who affected rare expressions] in his First Altar,

[greek] d v p o u itxysvta

[greek] Ps,s,x, rslslls dlslift woiexose,

[Page 11] and certainly occurs in composition, in [greek] Thes-ouros.

Hence flowed the dreams and illusions of Rosicrucian chemistry, that gold was made of sun-beams, and that it would yield an elixir of immortality.

Aura, which is sometimes used for the oir, is strictly the light which pervades it; the humid (습기) principle of the atmosphere being properly aer or awher, that is to say, darkness.

Aurora is a compound word, signifying the Golden or Luminous Hour; and the Cyprians used to call the Morning Star, [greek] Ayx-ouros¹⁷⁾ the Messenger of Light, the first syllable being the root of the word [greek] ayyerro. To that root, I suppose, Ancus Martius must be referred. Virgil intimates the golden and luminous nature of aura, in a remarkable line,

¹⁸⁾ Discolor unde auri per ramos aura refulsit.

17) Hesychius.

18) AEn. vi 204. Hor. C. l. 28. 8. Lactant. Phoenix. v. 44.

Mr. Bryant의 Chrys의 어원에 대한 견해[편집]

Mr. Bryant (Jacob Bryant: 1715~1804) never shewed a more infelicitous (부적절한) rashness (경솔함), than in-trying to persuade us that Chrys, [[greek] Xrusos], which occurs several times in the formation of mythic names, is a mistake for Chus the name of Ham's eldest son.

Gold와 관련된 것들[편집]

Ancient fable is full of gold.

The Age of paradise was golden, the Fruit in the fortunate gardens of Medusa was golden; and Chrys-Aor, the golden sword, [a title of¹⁹⁾ Apollo, and the²⁰⁾ name of a giant who sprung up from the blood of the Gorgon Medusa] probably alludes to the ensiform fire (칼 모양의 불) which stood between the Cherubim, at the eastern gate of Paradise. The fiery sword had a rotatory motion, in order that none might slip by it,

[greek] r p s p o (Jt,e vy J>oXaa*(T5iy njy 68ov row ?uA? *ys Kw$>,

and it was therefore called

[greek] rj ^koyivrj p o jtt J> a i a,

the romphaea²¹⁾ being a sword or spear used with a wheeling (좌우로 꺾다) motion of the arm.

¹⁹⁾ Hesiod. Op. ct D. v. 54.

²⁰⁾ Auctor Theogoniae, v. 281, etc.

²¹⁾ See Facdolati in Romphaea.

Orion의 다른 이름: Candaor = wheeling-sword = wheeling celestial fire[편집]

But Orion was called by the poet²²⁾ Euphorion, Candaor [Page 12] which may be translated the wheeling-sword, for cand or canth is (in Greek) the rolling of the eye,

[greek] T\avxot$ dpty orroi(rw ccvotiSsa²³⁾ M x a v 6 o v e\irr(vv,

and in Latin, it is a wheel.

It seems therefore that aor is not properly a sword, but a flame of coelestial fire; and a sword, only in the second intention;

²²⁾ Euph. tit. Banier Myth. 3. p. 569. Paris. 1740.

²³⁾ Orph, Arg. 931.

Orion의 다른 이름: Oarion = Aorion[편집]

and that the other form of Orion's name, Oarion,

Proximus Hydrochoi fulgeret Oarion,

would be more correctly spelt Aorion.

Jeremiah가 언급한 sword of the Dove에 대하여[편집]

When, therefore, the prophet Jeremiah calls the military power of the Babylonians, Medes and Persians, the "sword of the Dove," although it sounds like a very harsh (가혹한, 냉혹한) metaphor, he does little more than translate the name Orion or Oarion.

If that name means both sword and dove, [greek] o 'Pofj^>a,ioiteQire$o$, one is tempted to enquire, in what manner such diverse things were united in one symbol, and I think that the form of Dulfakar, the sword of Ali, six feet and an half in length, which the Persians, by a curious remnant of Magian superstition, to this day venerate, will explain it. I copied it out of Niebuhr's Description d'Arabie. It's form evidently does not permit of it's being drawn from a sheath (칼집), and Ammianus specifies that the Sword-god had the form of gladius nudus.

[image1-12-1]

This, as I believe, is a weapon representing the shape of a fiery serpent with a forked (한쪽 끝이 두 갈래인[갈라진]) or flammiform tail, and bearing in his mouth a stolen branch and apple from the tree of knowledge.

Dhū l-Fiqār, a fictional representation of the sword of Ali.

Zulfiqar "bifurcated" (ذو الفقار Ḍū al-Fiqār) is the sword of the Islamic leader Ali. In Arabic the name is commonly transliterated as Dhu al-Fiqar, Thulfeqar, Dhulfiqar, Zoulfikar etc. "Zulfiqar" and phonetic variations have been popular given names, as with former Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. This two-blade or bifurcated sword in Arabic is called: kilij.

Origin

Main article: Raid of Sa'd ibn Zaid al-Ashhali

According to the Twelver Shia, Zulfiqar is currently in the possession of Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi, as part of his collection called al-Jafr.^[299]

Shia (Shiite) Muslims believe that when the Islamic prophet Muhammad was nearing death, he appointed his son-in-law Ali as his successor, and handed him his sword named Zulfiqar. Frequently, reproductions of this sword will have the following expression engraved upon it: "There is no man like Ali, there is no sword like Zulfikur' - "la fata ella Ali la saif ella zulfiqar".

Recent usage

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran, renamed the military order Portrait of the Commander of Faithful to Order of Zolfaghar.^[300] During the Bosnian War, a Bosnian army's special unit was named "Zulfikar". In 2010, The Islamic Republic of Iran revealed the attack boat dubbed the Zolfaghar, likening it to the sword as an unstoppable weapon of its time. The Iranian Zulfiqar main battle tank is also named after the sword.

Assyrian emblem of the god Areimanius[편집]

[Page 13] But this (즉 fiery serpent = sword of the Dove) was an Assyrian emblem of the god Areimanius, unto whom, as I conceive, the Ninevite dynasty, and afterwards the Parthians, paid especial homage (경의, 존경), rather than the sword of the Mede and Medo-Persian kings, in whose minds the miraculous downfall of Sennacherib (King of Assyria, reign 705 – 681 BC), their oppressor, had wrought a change (변화들을 초래했다), which afterwards shewed itself more openly, under Darius Hystaspes (Darius I, King of Kings of Persia, reign 522-486 BC, 36 years).

To the latter dynasty²⁴⁾, as well as to the Babylonians of Nebuchadnezzar (king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, reigned c. 605 BC – 562 BC), this phrase is applied, and therefore the Septuagint improperly renders it,

[greek] 'airo irgotrunrov²⁵⁾ ^a^ai§ag 'EAXTJWXIJ*,

²⁴⁾ Disperdite satorem deBabylqne, et tenentem falcem in tempore messis; a facie Gladii Columbae unusquisque ad populum suum convertetur, et sin-guli ad terrain suam fugient. Hierem. c. 50. v. 16. Vulgat. ex edit. Du Hamel. Paris. 1706.

²⁵⁾ Jerem. 46. v. 16. Sept 26. v. 16. Jer. 50. v. 16. Sept. 27. v. 16.

[and therefore the Septuagint improperly renders it,] because although the word [greek] Errenixos (as applied to a sect in religion) is equivalent to [greek] Ionixos, neither the one nor the other can be correctly applied to the army of Cyrus (Cyrus II of Persia, Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire, reign 559 – 530 BC, 30 years).

But it was easy to form a dove-like rhomphaea, substituting wings, for those sort of lizards' legs, which Dulfakar has got by way of a guard, and the branch of olive for the fatal apple.

[image1-13-1]

Perhaps, however, I have been deceived by the appearance of an apple, and other minute particulars, in the Persian sword, and that colossal weapon may be the same which appalled (간담을 서늘케 하다) the nations, when they fled (~를 피하다) a facie gladii columboe (= destroying sword, sword of the dove). Let more competent antiquarians decide.

aour와 aor는 구별되어야 한다: 따라서 Orion에 대해 다른 어원을 찾아야 한다[편집]

As there is no reason for thinking that the word aour could [Page 14] ever be reduced into a short syllable, we must seek some other etymology for the Word Orion with it's first syllable short; and it is easy to see that it means the Mountain Dove.

Hesychius explains Semiramis to mean that; and the Indian goddess (whose form was that of a dove) was Parvati, or belonging to the Mountains; and Pindar saith,

[greek] lr* f soixo$

[greek] O f s ? v ye HsXsiocticvv

[greek] My rrjkoisv 'fyiwva, vsir6ou.

Was Nimrod the founder of the sect of Magi or worshippers of fire?[편집]

The orientals²⁶⁾ generally agree, in what we have already mentioned, that Nimrod was the founder of the sect of Magi or worshippers of fire; and although this be false, as touching the first origin of the Magian Haeresy, it is true that by Him was that Apostacy confirmed and made into the established Church of an Usurped Monarchy; and he was the Champion who maintained it, in his unequal struggle with the Sabian schismatics (종파).

²⁶⁾ Eutych. AnnaL p. 63, 64. Ebn. Amid. p. 29. cit Univ. Hist. vol 1.

Propertius에서 언급된 giant[편집]

There is mention in Propertius, of a giant, whose name the commentators tell us does not occur elsewhere, and which signifies the King of Fire,

Te duce vel Jovis anna canam, coeloque minacem

Coeum, et Phlegraeis Oro-Medonta jugis;²⁷⁾

구글 번역

Under your auspices or I will sing weapons of Jupiter, threatening sky

Mate, and I pray in Phlegraean Medonta-pairs;

but they are deceived in supposing that he is not mentioned in any other place, for Theocritus abominates the presumption of that architect, who would attempt to complete the house of Oromedon equal in height to the summit of a mountain; or the bard who would rival Homer in song:

[greek] 'l&ov opevg KOpvfyy

[greek] teXea'ai SOJAOV

[greek] 'Slg Ka Moa*ay ignxes, foti, itati

[greek] XIQV s, krweia,²⁸⁾

²⁷⁾ L. 3. El. 9. v. 48.

²⁸⁾ Id. vii. v. 45. et Schol.

[Page 15]

A most direct allusion to the Tower of Babel; and the scholiast says that Oromedon is the god Pan.

Parentage of Orion에 대한 다른 견해: Orion was not the son of the three gods, but of Jove alone[편집]

[Page 15] [S. III.] But the parentage of Orion is described again in other ways, by authorities to which I should be glad to obtain a more direct access. The Genealogia of Boccacio professes to be founded in great measure upon the writings of one Theodontius; but he does not inform us of the title of that author's work, nor where he had met with it, nor of what date it was, only saying, (upon the latter topic)

Theodontio, come penso, huomo non nuovo:

[구글 번역]

Theodontio, eat my own estimate, not a new huomo:

and if subsequent writers have ever discovered any thing concerning this authour, it is unknown to me. However, this writer would have it, that Orion was not the son of the three gods²⁹⁾, but of Jove alone; which is indeed the better opinion, and more in conformity with the various coinciding traditions of the same imposture (사칭).

²⁹⁾ Theod. cit. Bocc. Gen. p. 173. b. Venet. 1627.

Theodontius가 언급한 Demogorgon에 대하여[편집]

The same Theodontius treated largely of the gloomy being called Demogorgon, the spirit of the earth, and he maintained, with the full approbation (승인, 찬성) of Boccacio, that he was the³⁰⁾ father and origin of all the gentile gods; but, in so doing, he makes no mention of Orion.

³⁰⁾ Idem ibid. p. 5.b.

Hesselius, however, who wrote a learned commentary upon the fragments of Ennius, informs us that Orion was son of Demogorgon, where, speaking of Crete, he saith,

in ea Cres³¹⁾, Orionis filius, Demogorgonis nepos, regnasse fertur, eamque de suo nomine Cretam appellavisse.

[구글 번역]

in it, the rational, Orion the son of, grandson of Demogorgonis, reign is carried it out of in his own name appellavisse Crete.

³¹⁾ Hess, in Enn. p. 324.

Nimrod는 the first origin of that postdiluvian paganism called the reign of Jupiter[편집]

I find it stated elsewhere that Cres was the eldest son³²⁾ of Nimrod; but where that is to be read, about Orion and Demogorgon, I have not discovered.

³²⁾ Goth. Viterb. Pantheon, part 3. p. 88.

But it is not unimportant, in as much as Demogorgon means the Devil, and the whole story tends to connect Nimrod with the first origin of that postdiluvian paganism called the reign [Page 16] of Jupiter, and also with the last endeavours which that corrupt system made to maintain itself, by entering the Christian camp under false colours.

Nimrod는 the daemon이다[편집]

For, we may find in Prudentius, that the haeretic Marcion of Pontus taught the worship of an evil spirit called Charon, Lord of the sublunary (달 영향하의) world, and that his form and symbol was the gorgon or anguiferum caput,

Hirsutos juba densa humeros errantibus hydris

Obtegit, et virides adlambunt ora cerastae;

[구글 번역]

Hairy plume of thick shoulders wandering Hydra

Covering up, and the green snakes adlambunt coast;

and then he adds these remarkable words,

Hic ille est venator atrox, qui caede frequenti³³⁾

Incautas animas non icessat plectere Nebroth.

[구글 번역]

This is a fierce hunter, who crowded the murder

unguarded souls not icessat punish Nimrod.

Therefore we must take it that Nimrod was the daemon, whose gorgon terrours these Asiatic infidels (신앙심 없는 자) even then adored.

³³⁾ Prudent. Hamart. 142. 502.

The birth of Orion from the earth에 대하여[편집]

The birth of Orion from the earth is a story closely connected with the black art of Geomancy, and the land in which he was nursed was therefore called Hellopia, a voice from hell³⁴⁾.

Tityus, whose story is the very same, was the son of Jove, who impregnated Elara, the daughter of Orchomenus, and buried her in the earth while pregnant, but in due time the Earth³⁵⁾ rendered up the sacred embryo, and Tityus was called her son, [greek] Laines eroxudeos yios.

³⁴⁾ Strabo, L. x. p. 649. Oxon.

³⁵⁾ Apollod. 1. 1. p. 21.

Putative father of Orion: Hyrieus[편집]

The putative (추정상의) father of Orion, in whose house he was miraculously engendered, is commonly called Hyrieus, a name derived from the Greek verb for raining, and not unsuitable to the tale of the Byrsa; but the same old man is otherwise denominated [greek] Orieus³⁶⁾, which is a title of fire. He is also³⁷⁾ CEneus king of Boeotia, in the scholiast of Homer published by Creuser, in the first volume of his Meletemata.

³⁶⁾ Nonni Narrat. Myth; p. 69. ed. Creuser. Phavorin. cit. ib.

³⁷⁾ Schol. Od. v. 121. p. 51. Creuser.

Orion에 대한 Homer의 진술에 대하여[편집]

It should be understood that the name of Orion, as applicable to Nimrod, was not known to or at least not acknowledged by Homer. With him, it was a star of great importance, and no doubt sacred to some hero of older times. But it was a star represented on the shield of the person called Achilles (아킬레우스: 펠레우스와 테티스의 아들, 트로이 전쟁의 그리스 영웅), in Nimrod's life time; and was probably dedicated to the first or third of the three sons of Lamech; or else to Enoch,

We shall hereafter (이후 내용에서) have occasion to speak of (~에 대해 말할 기회를 만나다) Homer and the subjects upon which he has written; and it will then appear, that the action of his Iliad is a circumstance, which occurred before the death of Nimrod.

[I. C] [PDF Page 34] --배우는사람 (토론) 2013년 8월 8일 (목) 18:31 (KST)

주해[편집]

↑ For example, the "Double Hemisphere" world map from around 1680 by Moses Pitt labels North America as America Septentriona. This label is placed in the uncharted northwestern portion of North America, which could also be significant.

주석[편집]

↑ “Thebaid”. 《Catholic Encyclopedia》.
↑ Cochrane, p. 179; Meyer, p. 67; de Sainte Croix.
↑ Strauss, p. 139.
↑ Lucian, How to write history, p. 42
↑ Thucydides I,22
↑ Momigliano, pp. 39, 40.
↑ Lucian: Herodotus, pp. 1-2.
↑ Ryszard Kapuscinski: Travels with Herodotus, p. 78.
↑ Thucydides I, 23
↑ Lucian, p. 25, 41.
↑ Momigliano, Ch. 2, IV.
↑ Cicero, Laws 1.5.
↑ Plutarch, On the Malignity of Herodotus, Moralia XI (Loeb Classical Library 426).
↑ Momigliano Chapter 2, V.
↑ J. B. Bury, The Ancient Greek Historians (London, MacMillan, 1909), pp. 140-143.
↑ See Anthony Grafton, The Footnote, a Curious History (Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press, 1999)
↑ Momigliano, p. 50.
↑ For his part, Peter Green notes of these historians, the fact "That [Thucydides] was exiled for military incompetence, did a hatchet job on the man responsible and praised as virtually unbeatable the Spartan general to whom he had lost the key city of Amphipolis bothered them not at all." Peter Green (2008) cit.
↑ (Green 2008, op cit)
↑ Momigliano, pg.52.
↑ Stuart Clark (ed.): The Annales school: critical assessments, Vol. II, 1999.
↑ See essay on Thucydides in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss – Essays and Lectures by Leo Strauss, edited by Thomas L. Pangle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
↑ See, for example, E.H. Carr's The Twenty Years' Crisis.
↑ "The Neoconservative Persuasion"
↑ "Arms and the Man: What was Herodotus trying to tell us?" (The New Yorker, April 28, 2008)
↑ The American Prospect
↑ S. Foster Damon, A Blake Dictionary (1965), article on Bryant.
↑ 〈Bryant, Jacob (BRNT736J)〉. 《케임브리지 동문 데이터베이스》. 케임브리지 대학교.
↑ Foster: Opinionated and peppery, unhampered by modern standards of scholarship, and indulging in a fantastic philology, Bryant was of the Age of Reason in that he sought to reduce all fables to common sense.
↑ John Charles Whale; Stephen Copley (1992). 《Beyond Romanticism: New Approaches to Texts and Contexts, 1780-1832》. Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Incorporated. 92쪽. ISBN 978-0-415-05201-6. 2013년 4월 11일에 확인함.
↑ ^가 ^나 ^다 ^라 ^마 ^바 ^사 ^아 ^자 ^차 ^카 ^타 ^파 ^하 ^거 ^너 Stephen, Leslie, 편집. (1886). 〈Bryant, Jacob〉. 《영국인명사전》 7. 런던: Smith, Elder & Co.
↑ Stephen, Leslie, 편집. (1885). 〈Barford, William〉. 《영국인명사전》 3. 런던: Smith, Elder & Co.
↑ Jean Baptiste Le Chevalier (1791). 《Description of the plain of Troy, tr., with notes and illustr. by A. Dalzel》. 2013년 4월 11일에 확인함.
↑ Moyise, edited by Steve (2001). 《Studies in the book of Revelation》. Edinburgh: T & T Clark. 24쪽. ISBN 978-0-567-08814-7.
↑ ^가 ^나 ^다 ^라 ^마 Boase, George C. (1891). “Herbert, Algernon (1792–1855), antiquary”. 《Dictionary of National Biography Vol. XXV》. Smith, Elder & Co. 2007년 11월 20일에 확인함.
↑ ^가 ^나 Bandstra 2009, 61쪽.
↑ Cotter 2003, 49, 50쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 Cotter 2003, 50쪽.
↑ Byron, John (2011). 《Cain and Abel in text and tradition : Jewish and Christian interpretations of the first sibling rivalry》. Leiden: Brill. 5쪽. ISBN 9789004192522. : References Kugel. HU Center for Jewish Studies, 2001, p. 18
↑ Timeline for the Flood. AiG, 9 March 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-24.
↑ Barr 1984–85, 582.
↑ Davis A. Young, Ralph F. Stearley, The Bible, Rocks, and Time: Geological Evidence for the Age of the Earth, p. 45.[1]
↑ James Barr, 1984–85. "Why the World Was Created in 4004 BC: Archbishop Ussher and Biblical Chronology", Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 67:604 [2]
↑ Herbert, Sandra (1991). “Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author”. 《British Journal for the History of Science》 (24). 171–174면. 2009년 7월 24일에 확인함.
↑ Dalrymple 1991, 14–17쪽
↑ James Barr (1987년 3월 4일). 《Biblical Chronology, Fact or Fiction?》 (PDF). 《The Ethel M. Wood Lecture 1987》 (University of London). 17쪽. ISBN 978-0718708641. 2010년 8월 8일에 확인함.
↑ Genesis 6:5
↑ Bandstra 2009, 59, 60쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 Bandstra 2009, 62쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 Bandstra 2009, 65쪽.
↑ Bandstra 2009, 65, 66쪽.
↑ Bandstra 2009, 66쪽: Genesis 1:28
↑ Blenkinsopp 2004, 45쪽: Genesis 9:3-4
↑ Blenkinsopp 2004, 45쪽.
↑ Bandstra 2009, 66쪽: Genesis 9:6
↑ 꾸란 4:163, 꾸란 26:105–107
↑ 꾸란 11:35–41
↑ 꾸란 7:64
↑ 꾸란 11:44
↑ Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, London Institution, Volume 2 (1921). University of London: School of Oriental Studies. |제목=이(가) 없거나 비었음 (도움말) CS1 관리 - 여러 이름 (링크)
↑ LDS.org: "Book of Mormon Pronunciation Guide" (retrieved 2012-02-25), IPA-ified from «nĭm´räd»
↑ ^가 ^나 Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
↑ Walter Raleigh, History of the World p. 358-365
↑ Menner, Robert J. (1938). “Nimrod and the Wolf in the Old English 'Solomon and Saturn'”. 《Journal of English and Germanic Philology》 37 (3): 332–84.
↑ James Kufel, Traditions of the Bible, 1998, p. 230.
↑ “the Kitab al-Magall”. Sacred-texts.com. 2012년 4월 5일에 확인함.
↑ See Louis Ginsberg Legends of the Jews Vol I, and the footnotes volume.
↑ van der Toorn and van der Horst 1990, p. 19
↑ 틀:Daat enc
↑ Full original text and an English translation appear in the Ladino wikipedia article; see also [3], [4], [5]
↑ Wouter F. M. Henkelman, "The Birth of Gilgamesh", in Altertum und Mittelmeerraum: die antike Welt diesseits und jenseits der Levante, p. 819.
↑ Prince, J.D. (1920) "A Possible Sumerian Original of the Name Nimrod" (Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1920)
↑ Jacobsen, Theodor (1989) "LUgalbanda and Ninsuna" (Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 1989)
↑ Oxford Guide To The Bible p.557. Oxford University Press 1993. ISBN 978-0-19-534095-2
↑ Julian Jaynes (2000). 《The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind》. Mariner Books. 2013년 6월 16일에 확인함.
↑ “Homily IX”. Ccel.org. 2005년 6월 1일. 2012년 4월 5일에 확인함.
↑ “Enmerkar and the lord of Aratta: translation”. Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. 2009년 11월 12일에 확인함.
↑ The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, Vol. 1, p. 347-350.
↑ Mos. Choren. 1. 6; 9; Book of the Bee, 22
↑ Poplicha, Joseph (1929). “The Biblical Nimrod and the Kingdom of Eanna”. 《Journal of the American Oriental Society》 49: 303–317.
↑ William Ewing, 1910, The Temple Dictionary of the Bible, p. 514.
↑ Levin, Yigal (2002). “Nimrod the Mighty, King of Kish, King of Sumer and Akkad”. 《Vetus Testementum》 52: 350–356.
↑ Kalevala. Das finnische Epos des Elias Lönnroth. Mit einem Kommentar von Hans Fromm, Stuttgart: Reclam 1985. (Commentary of Hans Fromm to Elias Lönnroth's Kalevala)
↑ Dante, Inferno, XXXI.67 and 76.
↑ Steinmetz, Sol (2005). 《Dictionary Of Jewish Usage: A Guide To The Use Of Jewish Terms》. Rowman & Littlefield. 126쪽. ISBN 978-0-7425-4387-4. 2012년 4월 11일에 확인함.
↑ Garner, Bryan A. (2009년 8월 27일). 《Garner's Modern American Usage》. Oxford UP. 53쪽. ISBN 978-0-19-538275-4. 2012년 4월 11일에 확인함.
↑ Bauer, S. Wise (2007). 《The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome》. Norton. 269–70쪽. ISBN 978-0-393-05974-8. 2012년 4월 11일에 확인함.
↑ Homer. 〈II, 858〉. 《The Iliad》.
↑ Herodotus. 〈I, 171〉. 《Histories》.
↑ Herodotus. 〈VII, 20〉. 《Histories》.
↑ Strabo. 〈I, 171〉. 《Geography》.
↑ Epigraphical database: “Native 'Mysian' inscription” |url= 값 확인 필요 (도움말). Packard Humanities Institute.
↑ Strasburg, 1469, 1483, 1485, 1847; Reutlingen, 1473; Lyons, 1478; Basle, 1486; Paris 1487, etc.
↑ Patrologia Latina CXCVIII, 1053-1844.
↑ Migne, CCVII, and CCVIII, 1721, etc.
↑ Migne, CLXXI, sermon, 7, 15, 17, 21, 22, 23, etc.
↑ De viris illustribus, chapter 83
↑ Historia Ecclesiastica, VIII, xiii.
↑ In Patrologia Graeca, XVIII, 27-220.
↑ http://books.google.com/books?id=1cKlL1vjqTwC&pg=PA237&dq=gabriel+melitene#v=onepage&q=adam&f=false
↑ Gillingham (1991), p. 124, who also calls it "a single, indivisible political unit throughout the middle ages." He uses "medieval Germany" to mean the tenth to fifteenth centuries for the purposes of his paper. Robinson, "Pope Gregory", p. 729.
↑ Robinson, "Pope Gregory", p. 729.
↑ Cristopher Cope, Phoenix Frustrated: the lost kingdom of Burgundy, p. 287
↑ Bryce, p. 243
↑ Len Scales (2012년 4월 26일). 《The Shaping of German Identity: Authority and Crisis, 1245-1414》. Cambridge University Press. 179쪽. ISBN 978-0-521-57333-7. 2013년 4월 3일에 확인함.
↑ Holy Roman Empire, Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 12 July 2012.
↑ Joachim Ehlers: Natio 1.5 Deutschland und Frankreich, in: Lexikon des Mittelalters, Bd. 6, Sp. 1037 f.
↑ Joachim Whaley, 편집. (2011). 《Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493-1648》. Oxford University Press. 17–20쪽.
↑ Charlemagne and his successors assumed variations of the title emperor, but none termed themselves Roman emperor until Otto II in 983. Holy Roman Empire, Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 12 July 2012.
↑ ^가 ^나 Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of the Holy Roman Empire,” HistoryWorld.
↑ Martin Arbage, "Otto I", in Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia (Routledge, 2004), p. 810 online: "Otto can be considered the first ruler of the Holy Roman empire, though that term was not used until the twelfth century."
↑ Rein Taagepera (September 1997). “Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia”. 《International Studies Quarterly》 41 (3): 475–504. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053.
↑ Medieval Civilization: Lecture Notes
↑ The Holy Roman Empire, Heraldica.org.
↑ ^가 ^나 Johnson, Lonnie R. Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends (1996), Oxford University Press, p. 23.
↑ OED (1989), "Cathar".
↑ Lambert (1998), 21쪽.
↑ Pegg (2001a), 181 ff.쪽.
↑ Théry (2002), 75–117쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 ^다 ^라 ^마 Schaus (2006), 114쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 15–16쪽.
↑ Madaule (1967), 56–63쪽.
↑ Lambert (1998), 31쪽.
↑ John of Damascus (2012), 125쪽.
↑ Schaff & Wace (1994), 20쪽.
↑ Murphy (2012), 26–27쪽.
↑ Dondaine (1939).
↑ Wakefield & Evans (1991), 511–515쪽.
↑ See especially R.I. Moore's The Origins of European Dissent, and the collection of essays Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages: Essays on the Work of R.I. Moore for a consideration of the origins of the Cathars, and proof against identifying earlier heretics in the West, such as those identified in 1025 at Monforte, outside Milan, as being Cathars. Also see Heresies of the High Middle Ages, a collection of pertinent documents on Western heresies of the High Middle Ages, edited by Walter Wakefield and Austin P. Evans.
↑ ^가 ^나 See Emmanuel LeRoy Ladurie's Montaillou: the Promised Land of Error for a respected analysis of the social context of these last French Cathars, and Power and Purity by Carol Lansing for a consideration of 13th-century Catharism in Orvieto.
↑ Chesterton (1910), 30쪽.
↑ Wakefield & Evans (1991), 136쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 ^다 O'Shea (2000), 42쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 ^다 ^라 ^마 ^바 Johnston (2000), 252쪽.
↑ Murray, Alexander. 《Suicide in the Middle Ages》. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0‐19‐820539‐2 |isbn= 값 확인 필요: invalid character (도움말).
↑ Barber (2000), 103–104쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 Burr (1996).
↑ 〈Cathari〉, 《Columbia Encyclopedia》, Columbia University Press, 2007 .
↑ 〈Albigensians〉, 《Encyclopaedia 2》, The Free dictionary
↑ Lambert (1998), 41쪽: "Bernard's biographer identifies another group in Toulouse which he calls Arians, who have sometimes been identified as Cathars but the evidence is scant. It is most likely that the first Cathars to penetrate Languedoc appealed..."
↑ Luscombe & Riley-Smith (2004), 522쪽: "Even though his biographer does not describe their beliefs, Arians would have been an appropriate label for moderate dualists with an unorthodox Christology, and the term was certainly later used in Languedoc to describe Cathars."
↑ Johnston (2011), 115쪽: "However, they became converts to Arian Christianity, which later developed into Catharism. Arian and Cathar doctrines were sufficiently different from Catholic doctrine that the two branches were incompatible."
↑ Kienzle (2001), 92쪽: "The term ‘Arian' is often joined with ’Manichean' to designate Cathars. Geoffrey's comment implies that he and others called those heretics ’weavers', whereas they called themselves ’Arians'. Moreover, the Arians, who could have been...."
↑ Townsend (2008), 9쪽: "The Cathars did not accept the Church doctrine of Jesus being the 'Son of God'. They believed that Jesus was not embodied in the human form but an angel (Docetic Christology), which echoed back to the Arian controversy."
↑ Maseko (2008), 482쪽: "In the book 'Massacre at Montsegur' (a book widely regarded by medievalists as having a pronounced, pro-Cathar bias) the Cathars are referred to as 'Western Buddhists' because of their belief that the Doctrine of 'resurrection' taught."
↑ O'Shea (2000), 11쪽.
↑ The Gnostic Bible, Google Books.
↑ Weber (1908b).
↑ ^가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 49–50쪽.
↑ O'Shea, 2000 & pp2-4.
↑ Lambert (1998), 70쪽.
↑ Lambert (2002), 140쪽.
↑ Moore (1995), 137쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 Ward (2002), 241–42쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 O'Shea (2000), 10–12쪽.
↑ O'Shea (2000), 25–26쪽.
↑ Clark (2001), 412쪽.
↑ O'Shea (2000), 80–81쪽.
↑ O'Shea (2000), 40–43쪽.
↑ Kaelber (1997), 120쪽.
↑ Newman (1998), 753–755쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 O'Shea (2000), 41쪽.
↑ Weis (2001), 122쪽.
↑ Walther (1965), 167쪽.
↑ Johnson 1976, 251쪽.
↑ Sumption (1999), 68–69쪽.
↑ Sumption, 1999 & 72-73.
↑ of Heisterbach, Caesarius (1851), Strange, J, 편집., 《Caesarius Heiserbacencis monachi ordinis Cisterciensis, Dialogus miraculorum》 2, Cologne: JM Heberle, 296–8쪽, Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eis . Caesarius (c) was a Cistercian Master of Novices.
↑ Moore (2003), 180쪽. Note: Another Cistercian writing a few years after the events makes no mention of this remark while Caesar of Heisterbach wrote forty years later, however both are consistent with Arnaud's report to Pope Innocent III about the massacre.
↑ Johnson (1976), 252쪽.
↑ Innocent III (1855), Vol. 216.
↑ Sibly & Sibly (2003), 128쪽.
↑ Chanson de la Croisade Albigeoise laisse 205.
↑ Sumption (1999), 179–81쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 230–232쪽.
↑ Martin (2005), 105–121쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 238–40쪽.
↑ Innocent IV (1252), 《Ad extirpanda》 (Bull) .
↑ Weis (2001), 11–12쪽.
↑ O'Shea (2000), 237–38쪽.
↑ ^가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 242–43쪽.
↑ O'Shea (2000), 239–46쪽.
↑ O'Shea (2000), 230쪽.
↑ Pays Cathare
↑ Lambert (1998).
↑ Barber (2000).
↑ L'Agonie du Languedoc: Claude Marti / Studio der frühen Musik – Thomas Binkley, dir. EMI "Reflexe" 1C 063-30 132 [LP-Stereo]1975
↑ La Nef. Montségur: La tragédie cathare. Dorian Recordings.DOR-90243
↑ Savall The Forgotten Kingdom: The Cathar Tragedy – The Albigensian Crusade AVSA9873 A+C Alia Vox 2009
↑ The name is variously written; Καϊνοί (Hippol. Ref. viii. 20; Theodoret, Haer. Fab. i. 15); Caini (Praedest. Cod.); Καϊανισταί (Clem. Alex. Strom. vii. 17), Καϊανοί (Epiphanius, Haer. 38; Origen, contra Celsum, iii. 13, but his translator Gelenius gives Cainani); Caiani (Philast. 2; Augustin. Haer. 18, Praedest. 18, codd.); Gaiana haeresis (Tertullian de Praescrip. 33, and de Bapt. 1), but Jerome writing with a clear reference to the latter passage of Tertullian has Caina (Ep. 83, ad Oceanum, and contra Vigilantium). Elsewhere he seems to have Cainaei (Dial. adv. Lucifer. 33); but many MSS. here have Chaldaei. So also Cainaei (Pseudo-Tertullian, 7), Cainiani (Praedest. Codd.). Irenaeus (i. 31) describes the doctrines of the sect, but gives them no title.
↑ Homer, Iliad 2.546–551.
↑ ^가 ^나 Nonnus, Dionysiaca, 14. 44
↑ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5.56; Pindar, Odes Olympian 7.3
↑ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5.57.2
↑ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5.57.6
↑ Pindar, Odes Olympian 7.3 sqq
↑ Chaucer's Eolus (de Weever, Jacqueline (1996). Chaucer Name Dictionary, s.v. "Eolus". (Garland Publishing) Retrieved on 2009-10-06
↑ ^가 ^나 Schmitz, Leonhard (1864), 〈Aeolus (1), (2) and (3)〉, Smith, William, 《Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology》 1, 35쪽
↑ Smith, William. “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology”. The Ancient Library. 2013년 3월 14일에 확인함.
↑ Bibliotheca i. 7. §3; Scholium on Pindar's Pythian Ode iv. 190. In the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women (fr. 10(a)), his children are: Cretheus, Athamas, Sisyphus, Salmoneus, Deioneus, Perieres, Peisidice, Alcyone, Calyce, Canace and Perimede; one other son's name, perhaps Magnes, is lost in a lacuna.
↑ Apollodorus i. 7. ~ 3)
↑ Hyginus. Fabulae, 238, 242.
↑ Ovid. Heroides, 11.
↑ Pseudo-Plutarch. Parallel Lives, 28
↑ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4. 67. 3 (trans. Oldfather)
↑ Homer, Odyssey x, 2
↑ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 4. 7. 6 - 8. 3
↑ Scholia on Odyssey, 10. 6
↑ Love Romances, 2
↑ Virgil, Aeneid i. 71-75
↑ 《Pubblicazioni dell'Istituto universitario orientale di Napoli》 59. 1999 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=O9xiAAAAMAAJ&q=apkallu+dilmun&dq=apkallu+dilmun. 2011년 12월 12일에 확인함. |제목=이(가) 없거나 비었음 (도움말)
↑ “Iconography of Deities and Demons in the Ancient Near East” (PDF). University of Zurich. 2011년 12월 12일에 확인함.
↑ ^가 ^나 Jones, Lindsay, ed. in chief (2005). 《Encyclopedia of religion vol. 9》 2판. Detroit: Thomson Gale. 5964쪽. ISBN 0-02-865742-X. CS1 관리 - 추가 문구 (링크)
↑ “The Melammu Project: The Intellectual Heritage of Assyria and Babylonia in East and West”. 2011년 12월 12일에 확인함.
↑ Leick, Gwendolyn (1998). 《A dictionary of ancient Near Eastern mythology》 [1. pbk.].판. London: Routledge. 151쪽. ISBN 978-0-415-19811-0.
↑ Mettinger, Tryggve N.D. (2007). 《The Eden narrative : a literary and religio-historical study of Genesis 2-3》. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. 103쪽. ISBN 978-1-57506-141-2.
↑ Bottéro, Jean (1995). 《Writing, reasoning, and the Gods》 Paperback판. Chicago [u.a.]: Univ. of Chicago Press. 247쪽. ISBN 978-0-226-06727-8. CS1 관리 - 추가 문구 (링크)
↑ ^가 ^나 Conrad, edited by Edgar W.; Newing, Edward G. (1987). 《Perspectives on language and text : essays and poems in honor of Francis I. Andersen's sixtieth birthday, July 28, 1985》. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. 39쪽. ISBN 978-0-931464-26-3.
↑ Clifford, edited by Richard J. (2007). 《Wisdom literature in Mesopotamia and Israel》 [Online-Ausg.]판. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. 25쪽. ISBN 978-1-58983-219-0.
↑ Hess, ed. by Richard S. (1994). 《"I studied inscriptions from before the flood" : ancient Near Eastern, literary, and linguistic approaches to Genesis 1-11》. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. 64쪽. ISBN 978-0-931464-88-1.
↑ chief, Lindsay Jones, ed. in (2005). 《Encyclopedia of religion vol. 4》 2판. Detroit: Thomson Gale. 2803쪽. ISBN 0-02-865737-3. CS1 관리 - 추가 문구 (링크)
↑ Ataç, Mehmet-Ali (2010). 《The mythology of kingship in Neo-Assyrian art》 1. publ.판. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 150쪽. ISBN 978-0-521-51790-4.
↑ “septentrional”. 《Oxford English Dictionary online》. Second edition, 1989; online version March 2012. March 28, 2012에 확인함.
↑ Hooke, Robert. 1666. Volume 1. Philosophical Transactions.
↑ According to Bereshit Rabbah, p.56, she was the wife of Noah, the son of the other Lamech.[6]
↑ ^가 ^나 Brown Driver Briggs Hebrew Lexicon p.658; Strongs H5307
↑ Girdlestone R. Old Testament Synonyms p54
↑ Hendel R. ed. Auffarth Christoph; Loren T. Stuckenbruck The fall of the angels Brill (22 Feb 2004) ISBN 978-90-04-12668-8 p.21, 34
↑ Marks, Herbert "Biblical Naming and Poetic Etymology" Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 114, No. 1 (Spring, 1995), pp. 21–42
↑ Brown Driver Briggs Hebrew Lexicon p.658
↑ Van Ruiten, Jacques (2000). 《Primaeval History Interpreted: The Rewriting of Genesis I-II in the Book of Jubilees》. Brill. 189쪽. ISBN 9789004116580.
↑ ^가 ^나 Wright, Archie T. (2005). 《The Origin of Evil Spirits: The Reception of Genesis 6.1-4 in Early Jewish Literature》. Mohr Siebeck. 80–81쪽. ISBN 9783161486562.
↑ The Greek text reads 'οι βιαιοι; the singular root βιαιος means "violence" or "forcible" (Liddell & Scott. Greek-English Lexicon, 1883.)
↑ ^가 ^나 Stackhouse, Thomas (1869). 《A History of the Holy Bible》. Blackie & Son. 53쪽.
↑ Salvesen, Alison (1998). 〈Symmachus Readings in the Pentateuch〉. 《Origen's Hexapla and Fragments: Papers Presented at the Rich Seminar on the Hexapla, Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies, [July] 25th-3rd August 1994》. Mohr Siebeck. 190쪽. ISBN 9783161465758. The rendering "he fell upon, attacked" [in Symmachus, Genesis 6:6] is something of a puzzle...If it has been faithfully recorded, it may be related to the rendering of Aquila for the Nephilim in 6:4, οι επιπιπτοντες.
↑ Richard Hess, article "Nephilim" in Freedman, David Noel, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, (New York: Doubleday) 1997, 1992.
↑ P. W. Coxon, article "Nephilim" in K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst, "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible", p.619
↑ G. Milton Smith Knowing God in His Word—Genesis 2005 Page 140 "The other view holds that the sons of God were fallen angels who had some sort of union with the women of Noah's"
↑ paleographically dated by Milik as c150BC see Michael E. Stone Selected studies in pseudepigrapha and apocrypha 1991 p248
↑ either stolen or purchased from street vendors by the British in the reign of Tewodros
↑ compare: R.H. Charles 1 Enoch 7:2 "And when the angels, (3) the sons of heaven, beheld them, they became enamoured of them, saying to each other,Come, let us select for ourselves wives from the progeny of men, and let us beget children. Ethiopian Orthodox Bible Henok 2:1–3 "and the Offspring of Seth, who were upon the Holy Mount, saw them and loved them. And they told one another, "Come, let us choose for us daughters from Cain's children; let us bear children for us."
↑ New American Bible, footnotes page 1370, referring to verse 6.
The angels too, who did not keep to their own domain but deserted their proper dwelling, he has kept in eternal chains, in gloom, for the judgement of the great day. Likewise, Sodom and Gomorrah, and the surrounding towns, which, in the same manner as they, indulged in sexual promiscuity and practiced unnatural vice, serve as an example by undergoing a punishment of eternal fire.
— Jude 1:6–7, New American Bible.
↑
The author does not present this episode as a myth nor, on the other hand, does he deliver judgment on its actual occurrence; he records the anecdote of a superhuman race simply to serve as an example of the increase in human wickedness which was to provoke the Flood.
— Jerusalem Bible, Genesis VI, footnote.
↑ Who are the sons of God and the Nephilim?
↑ http://kenraggio.com/KR-Giants-And-Angels-Breeding.html
↑ “Matthew 22:30”. BibleGateway.com, from the New American Standard Bible translation.
↑ Bob Deffinbaugh, Genesis: From Paradise to Patriarchs, The Sons of God and the Daughters of Men
↑ Swete, Henry Barclay (1901). 《The Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint (Volume 1)》. Cambridge University Press. 9쪽. Greek text: 'οι αγγελοι του θεου
↑ “Book 1: Watchers”. Academy for Ancient Texts, Timothy R. Carnahan. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함.
↑ R. H. Charles A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St John p239 "He may be Uriel, if it is legitimate to compare 1 Enoch xx. 2, according to which he was the angel set over the world and Tartarus (ὁ ἐπὶ τοῦ κόσμου καὶ τοῦ Ταρτάρου). In 1 Enoch, Tartarus is the nether world generally,"
↑ Archie T. Wright The origin of evil spirits: the reception of Genesis 6.1–4 6:1–4 in Early Jewish Literature. 2005 Page 82 "Targum Neofiti's rendition of nephilim follows that of Onkelos ... Targum Pseudo-Jonathan interprets the Genesis 6.4 passage with significant changes, which indicate a strong negative"
↑ "1.9 In 'He comes with ten thousands of His holy ones' the text reproduces the Massoretic of Deut. 33² in reading אָתָא = ἔρχεται, whereas the three Targums, the Syriac and Vulgate read אִתֹּה = μετ' αὐτοῦ. Here the LXX diverges wholly. The reading אתא is recognised as original. The writer of 1–5 therefore used the Hebrew text and presumably wrote in Hebrew." R.H.Charles, Book of Enoch: Together with a Reprint of the Greek Fragments London 1912, p.lviii
↑ "We may note especially that 1:1, 3–4, 9 allude unmistakably to Deuteronomy 33:1–2 (along with other passages in the Hebrew Bible), implying that the author, like some other Jewish writers, read Deuteronomy 33–34, the last words of Moses in the Torah, as prophecy of the future history of Israel, and 33:2 as referring to the eschatological theophany of God as judge." Richard Bauckham, The Jewish world around the New Testament: collected essays. 1999 p276
↑ "The introduction.. picks up various biblical passages and re-interprets them, applying them to Enoch. Two passages are central to it The first is Deuteronomy 33:1 .. the second is Numbers 24:3–4 Michael E. Stone Selected studies in pseudepigrapha and apocrypha with special reference to the Armenian Tradition (Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha No 9) p.422.
↑ e.g. Michael Green The second epistle general of Peter, and the general epistle of Jude p59
↑ James L. Kugel Traditions of the Bible: A Guide to the Bible As It Was at the Start of the Common Era (9780674791510)
↑ "The Nephilim were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of the nobles would come to the daughters of man, and they would bear for them; they are the mighty men, who were of old, the men of renown."—Genesis 6:4 (chabad.org translation)
↑
Later Judaism and almost all the earliest ecclesiastical writers identify the "sons of God" with the fallen angels; but from the fourth century onwards, as the idea of angelic natures becomes less material, the Fathers commonly take the "sons of God" to be Seth's descendants and the "daughters of men" those of Cain.
— Jerusalem Bible, Genesis VI, footnote.
↑ Kitab al-Magall
↑ Julius Africanus at CCEL
↑ Commentary in Genesis 6:3
↑ Rick Wade, Answering Email, The Nephilim
↑ “Matthew 24:38”. BibleGateway.com, from the New American Standard Bible translation.
↑ Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Sunday Schools Department: The "Holy Angels" (in Amharic)
↑ The Amharic text of Henok 2:1–3 (i.e. 1 En) in the 1962 Ethiopian Orthodox Bible may be translated as follows: "After mankind abounded, it became thus: And in that season, handsome comely children were born to them; and the Offspring of Seth, who were upon the Holy Mount, saw them and loved them. And they told one another, "Come,let us choose for us daughters from Cain's children; let us bear children for us."
↑ e.g. Peake's commentary on the Bible 1919
↑ J. C. Greenfield, Article Apkallu in K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst, "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible", pp.72–4
↑ J. C. Greenfield, Article Apkallu in K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst, "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible", pp.73
↑ W. Zimmerli, Ezekiel vl.2 Translated J. D. Martin; Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983 p168, 176
↑ RS Hendel, Of Demigods and the Deluge: Towards an Interpretation of Genesis 6:1–4, JBL 106 (1987) p22
↑ K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst, "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible", p.619
↑ Rigal, Laura (2001). 《American Manufactory: Art, Labor, and the World of Things in the Early Republic》. Princeton University Press. 91쪽. ISBN 9780691089515.
↑ Rose, Mark (November/December 2005). “When Giants Roamed the Earth”. 《Archaeology》 58 (6). 01.04.2013에 확인함.
↑ [7]
↑ [8]
↑ Lexicon Results for Cham (Strong's 02526)
↑ Lexicon Results for Shem (Strong's 08035)
↑ Lexicon Results for Yepheth (Strong's 03315)
↑ David Moshman (2005). 〈Theories of Self and Theories as Selves〉. Cynthia Lightfoot, Michael Chandler and Chris Lalonde. 《Changing Conceptions of Psychological Life》. Psychology Press. 186쪽. ISBN 978-0805843361.
↑ ^가 ^나 ^다 ^라 Mungello, David E. (1989). 《Curious land: Jesuit accommodation and the origins of Sinology》. University of Hawaii Press. 179, 336–337쪽. ISBN 0-8248-1219-0. there are more references in that book on the early Jesuits' and others' opinions on Noah's Connection to China
↑ e.g. Jubilees 9:4; 11:1-7 Book of Jubilees at Wesley Center
↑ Millard, Alan R. Biblical Archaeology Review May/June 2001: Where Was Abraham's Ur?
↑ Year-Names for Naram-Sin
↑ e.g. Book of Jubilees, Biblical Antiquities of Philo, Kitab al-Magall, Flavius Josephus (I.VI.4).
↑ 틀:StrongHebrew
↑ Rene Noorbergen (2001). 《Secrets of the Lost Races: New Discoveries of Advanced Technology in Ancient Civilizations》. TEACH Services, Inc. ISBN 1-57258-198-0.
↑ Roswell Dwight Hitchcock, Nathaniel West, Alexander Cruden (1870). 《Hitchcock's New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible》. A.J. Johnson. ISBN 0-8370-1742-4. CS1 관리 - 여러 이름 (링크)
↑ 〈Almodad〉. 《International Standard Bible Encyclopedia》. 1915.
↑ Thomas Inman (2002). 〈Almodad〉. 《Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names Part 1》. Kessinger Publishing. 231쪽. ISBN 0-7661-2668-4.
↑ Alfred J. Kolatch (2005). 〈Almodad〉. 《The Comprehensive Dictionary of English & Hebrew First Names》. Jonathan David Company. p39쪽. ISBN 0-8246-0455-5. CS1 관리 - 추가 문구 (링크)
↑ David K. Stabnow (2006). 〈Almodad〉. 《HCSB Super Giant Print Dictionary and Concordance》. Broadman & Holman. 47쪽. ISBN 0-8054-9489-8.
↑ Antiquities of the Jews – Book I
↑ Die Chronik des Hippolytus
↑ Etymologies of Isidore, English translation
↑ This was observed as early as 1734, in George Sale's Commentary on the Quran.
↑ Seth in Jewish, Christian, and Gnostic Literature, Albertus Frederik Johannes Klijn, Volume 46 of Novum Testamentum. Supplements, BRILL, 1977, p. 54
↑ S.P. Brock notes that the earliest Greek texts of Pseudo-Methodius read Moneton, while the Syriac versions have Ionţon (Armenian Apocrypha, p. 117)
↑ Travels of Noah into Europe
↑ Islam, Misbah (2008년 6월 30일). 《Decline of Muslim States and Societies》. Xlibris Corporation. 333쪽. ISBN 978-1-4363-1012-3. 2013년 1월 16일에 확인함.
↑ “Order Of Zolfaghar”. Iran Collection. 2013년 1월 16일에 확인함.

[223] For example, the "Double Hemisphere" world map from around 1680 by Moses Pitt labels North America as America Septentriona. This label is placed in the uncharted northwestern portion of North America, which could also be significant.

[1] “Thebaid”. 《Catholic Encyclopedia》.

[2] Cochrane, p. 179; Meyer, p. 67; de Sainte Croix.

[3] Strauss, p. 139.

[4] Lucian, How to write history, p. 42

[5] Thucydides I,22

[6] Momigliano, pp. 39, 40.

[7] Lucian: Herodotus, pp. 1-2.

[8] Ryszard Kapuscinski: Travels with Herodotus, p. 78.

[9] Thucydides I, 23

[10] Lucian, p. 25, 41.

[11] Momigliano, Ch. 2, IV.

[12] Cicero, Laws 1.5.

[13] Plutarch, On the Malignity of Herodotus, Moralia XI (Loeb Classical Library 426).

[14] Momigliano Chapter 2, V.

[15] J. B. Bury, The Ancient Greek Historians (London, MacMillan, 1909), pp. 140-143.

[16] See Anthony Grafton, The Footnote, a Curious History (Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press, 1999)

[17] Momigliano, p. 50.

[18] For his part, Peter Green notes of these historians, the fact "That [Thucydides] was exiled for military incompetence, did a hatchet job on the man responsible and praised as virtually unbeatable the Spartan general to whom he had lost the key city of Amphipolis bothered them not at all." Peter Green (2008) cit.

[19] (Green 2008, op cit)

[20] Momigliano, pg.52.

[21] Stuart Clark (ed.): The Annales school: critical assessments, Vol. II, 1999.

[22] See essay on Thucydides in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss – Essays and Lectures by Leo Strauss, edited by Thomas L. Pangle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).

[23] See, for example, E.H. Carr's The Twenty Years' Crisis.

[24] "The Neoconservative Persuasion"

[25] "Arms and the Man: What was Herodotus trying to tell us?" (The New Yorker, April 28, 2008)

[26] The American Prospect

[27] S. Foster Damon, A Blake Dictionary (1965), article on Bryant.

[28] 〈Bryant, Jacob (BRNT736J)〉. 《케임브리지 동문 데이터베이스》. 케임브리지 대학교.

[29] Foster: Opinionated and peppery, unhampered by modern standards of scholarship, and indulging in a fantastic philology, Bryant was of the Age of Reason in that he sought to reduce all fables to common sense.

[30] John Charles Whale; Stephen Copley (1992). 《Beyond Romanticism: New Approaches to Texts and Contexts, 1780-1832》. Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Incorporated. 92쪽. ISBN 978-0-415-05201-6. 2013년 4월 11일에 확인함.

[DNB-31] 가 ^나 ^다 ^라 ^마 ^바 ^사 ^아 ^자 ^차 ^카 ^타 ^파 ^하 ^거 ^너 Stephen, Leslie, 편집. (1886). 〈Bryant, Jacob〉. 《영국인명사전》 7. 런던: Smith, Elder & Co.

[32] Stephen, Leslie, 편집. (1885). 〈Barford, William〉. 《영국인명사전》 3. 런던: Smith, Elder & Co.

[33] Jean Baptiste Le Chevalier (1791). 《Description of the plain of Troy, tr., with notes and illustr. by A. Dalzel》. 2013년 4월 11일에 확인함.

[Moyise,_24-34] Moyise, edited by Steve (2001). 《Studies in the book of Revelation》. Edinburgh: T & T Clark. 24쪽. ISBN 978-0-567-08814-7.

[dnb-35] 가 ^나 ^다 ^라 ^마 Boase, George C. (1891). “Herbert, Algernon (1792–1855), antiquary”. 《Dictionary of National Biography Vol. XXV》. Smith, Elder & Co. 2007년 11월 20일에 확인함.

[FOOTNOTEBandstra200961-36] 가 ^나 Bandstra 2009, 61쪽.

[FOOTNOTECotter200349,_50-37] Cotter 2003, 49, 50쪽.

[FOOTNOTECotter200350-38] 가 ^나 Cotter 2003, 50쪽.

[39] Byron, John (2011). 《Cain and Abel in text and tradition : Jewish and Christian interpretations of the first sibling rivalry》. Leiden: Brill. 5쪽. ISBN 9789004192522. : References Kugel. HU Center for Jewish Studies, 2001, p. 18

[AiGdate-40] Timeline for the Flood. AiG, 9 March 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-24.

[41] Barr 1984–85, 582.

[42] Davis A. Young, Ralph F. Stearley, The Bible, Rocks, and Time: Geological Evidence for the Age of the Earth, p. 45.[1]

[43] James Barr, 1984–85. "Why the World Was Created in 4004 BC: Archbishop Ussher and Biblical Chronology", Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 67:604 [2]

[44] Herbert, Sandra (1991). “Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author”. 《British Journal for the History of Science》 (24). 171–174면. 2009년 7월 24일에 확인함.

[45] Dalrymple 1991, 14–17쪽

[46] James Barr (1987년 3월 4일). 《Biblical Chronology, Fact or Fiction?》 (PDF). 《The Ethel M. Wood Lecture 1987》 (University of London). 17쪽. ISBN 978-0718708641. 2010년 8월 8일에 확인함.

[47] Genesis 6:5

[FOOTNOTEBandstra200959,_60-48] Bandstra 2009, 59, 60쪽.

[FOOTNOTEBandstra200962-49] 가 ^나 Bandstra 2009, 62쪽.

[FOOTNOTEBandstra200965-50] 가 ^나 Bandstra 2009, 65쪽.

[FOOTNOTEBandstra200965,_66-51] Bandstra 2009, 65, 66쪽.

[52] Bandstra 2009, 66쪽: Genesis 1:28

[53] Blenkinsopp 2004, 45쪽: Genesis 9:3-4

[FOOTNOTEBlenkinsopp200445-54] Blenkinsopp 2004, 45쪽.

[55] Bandstra 2009, 66쪽: Genesis 9:6

[56] 꾸란 4:163, 꾸란 26:105–107

[57] 꾸란 11:35–41

[58] 꾸란 7:64

[59] 꾸란 11:44

[60] Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, London Institution, Volume 2 (1921). University of London: School of Oriental Studies. |제목=이(가) 없거나 비었음 (도움말) CS1 관리 - 여러 이름 (링크)

[61] LDS.org: "Book of Mormon Pronunciation Guide" (retrieved 2012-02-25), IPA-ified from «nĭm´räd»

[Harris-62] 가 ^나 Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.

[63] Walter Raleigh, History of the World p. 358-365

[64] Menner, Robert J. (1938). “Nimrod and the Wolf in the Old English 'Solomon and Saturn'”. 《Journal of English and Germanic Philology》 37 (3): 332–84.

[65] James Kufel, Traditions of the Bible, 1998, p. 230.

[66] “the Kitab al-Magall”. Sacred-texts.com. 2012년 4월 5일에 확인함.

[67] See Louis Ginsberg Legends of the Jews Vol I, and the footnotes volume.

[68] van der Toorn and van der Horst 1990, p. 19

[69] 틀:Daat enc

[70] Full original text and an English translation appear in the Ladino wikipedia article; see also [3], [4], [5]

[71] Wouter F. M. Henkelman, "The Birth of Gilgamesh", in Altertum und Mittelmeerraum: die antike Welt diesseits und jenseits der Levante, p. 819.

[72] Prince, J.D. (1920) "A Possible Sumerian Original of the Name Nimrod" (Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1920)

[73] Jacobsen, Theodor (1989) "LUgalbanda and Ninsuna" (Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 1989)

[Metzger_&_Coogan-74] Oxford Guide To The Bible p.557. Oxford University Press 1993. ISBN 978-0-19-534095-2

[75] Julian Jaynes (2000). 《The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind》. Mariner Books. 2013년 6월 16일에 확인함.

[76] “Homily IX”. Ccel.org. 2005년 6월 1일. 2012년 4월 5일에 확인함.

[77] “Enmerkar and the lord of Aratta: translation”. Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. 2009년 11월 12일에 확인함.

[78] The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, Vol. 1, p. 347-350.

[79] Mos. Choren. 1. 6; 9; Book of the Bee, 22

[80] Poplicha, Joseph (1929). “The Biblical Nimrod and the Kingdom of Eanna”. 《Journal of the American Oriental Society》 49: 303–317.

[81] William Ewing, 1910, The Temple Dictionary of the Bible, p. 514.

[82] Levin, Yigal (2002). “Nimrod the Mighty, King of Kish, King of Sumer and Akkad”. 《Vetus Testementum》 52: 350–356.

[83] Kalevala. Das finnische Epos des Elias Lönnroth. Mit einem Kommentar von Hans Fromm, Stuttgart: Reclam 1985. (Commentary of Hans Fromm to Elias Lönnroth's Kalevala)

[84] Dante, Inferno, XXXI.67 and 76.

[85] Steinmetz, Sol (2005). 《Dictionary Of Jewish Usage: A Guide To The Use Of Jewish Terms》. Rowman & Littlefield. 126쪽. ISBN 978-0-7425-4387-4. 2012년 4월 11일에 확인함.

[86] Garner, Bryan A. (2009년 8월 27일). 《Garner's Modern American Usage》. Oxford UP. 53쪽. ISBN 978-0-19-538275-4. 2012년 4월 11일에 확인함.

[87] Bauer, S. Wise (2007). 《The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome》. Norton. 269–70쪽. ISBN 978-0-393-05974-8. 2012년 4월 11일에 확인함.

[88] Homer. 〈II, 858〉. 《The Iliad》.

[89] Herodotus. 〈I, 171〉. 《Histories》.

[90] Herodotus. 〈VII, 20〉. 《Histories》.

[91] Strabo. 〈I, 171〉. 《Geography》.

[92] Epigraphical database: “Native 'Mysian' inscription” |url= 값 확인 필요 (도움말). Packard Humanities Institute.

[93] Strasburg, 1469, 1483, 1485, 1847; Reutlingen, 1473; Lyons, 1478; Basle, 1486; Paris 1487, etc.

[94] Patrologia Latina CXCVIII, 1053-1844.

[95] Migne, CCVII, and CCVIII, 1721, etc.

[96] Migne, CLXXI, sermon, 7, 15, 17, 21, 22, 23, etc.

[97] De viris illustribus, chapter 83

[98] Historia Ecclesiastica, VIII, xiii.

[99] In Patrologia Graeca, XVIII, 27-220.

[100] ttp://books.google.com/books?id=1cKlL1vjqTwC&pg=PA237&dq=gabriel+melitene#v=onepage&q=adam&f=false

[101] Gillingham (1991), p. 124, who also calls it "a single, indivisible political unit throughout the middle ages." He uses "medieval Germany" to mean the tenth to fifteenth centuries for the purposes of his paper. Robinson, "Pope Gregory", p. 729.

[102] Robinson, "Pope Gregory", p. 729.

[103] Cristopher Cope, Phoenix Frustrated: the lost kingdom of Burgundy, p. 287

[104] Bryce, p. 243

[Scales2012-105] Len Scales (2012년 4월 26일). 《The Shaping of German Identity: Authority and Crisis, 1245-1414》. Cambridge University Press. 179쪽. ISBN 978-0-521-57333-7. 2013년 4월 3일에 확인함.

[106] Holy Roman Empire, Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 12 July 2012.

[107] Joachim Ehlers: Natio 1.5 Deutschland und Frankreich, in: Lexikon des Mittelalters, Bd. 6, Sp. 1037 f.

[108] Joachim Whaley, 편집. (2011). 《Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493-1648》. Oxford University Press. 17–20쪽.

[109] Charlemagne and his successors assumed variations of the title emperor, but none termed themselves Roman emperor until Otto II in 983. Holy Roman Empire, Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 12 July 2012.

[Gascoigne-110] 가 ^나 Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of the Holy Roman Empire,” HistoryWorld.

[111] Martin Arbage, "Otto I", in Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia (Routledge, 2004), p. 810 online: "Otto can be considered the first ruler of the Holy Roman empire, though that term was not used until the twelfth century."

[Taagepera1997-112] Rein Taagepera (September 1997). “Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia”. 《International Studies Quarterly》 41 (3): 475–504. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053.

[113] Medieval Civilization: Lecture Notes

[114] The Holy Roman Empire, Heraldica.org.

[Johnson-115] 가 ^나 Johnson, Lonnie R. Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends (1996), Oxford University Press, p. 23.

[FOOTNOTEOED1989"Cathar"-116] OED (1989), "Cathar".

[FOOTNOTELambert199821-117] Lambert (1998), 21쪽.

[FOOTNOTEPegg2001a181_ff.-118] Pegg (2001a), 181 ff.쪽.

[FOOTNOTEThéry200275–117-119] Théry (2002), 75–117쪽.

[FOOTNOTESchaus2006114-120] 가 ^나 ^다 ^라 ^마 Schaus (2006), 114쪽.

[FOOTNOTESumption199915–16-121] 가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 15–16쪽.

[FOOTNOTEMadaule196756–63-122] Madaule (1967), 56–63쪽.

[FOOTNOTELambert199831-123] Lambert (1998), 31쪽.

[FOOTNOTEJohn_of_Damascus2012125-124] John of Damascus (2012), 125쪽.

[FOOTNOTESchaffWace199420-125] Schaff & Wace (1994), 20쪽.

[FOOTNOTEMurphy201226–27-126] Murphy (2012), 26–27쪽.

[FOOTNOTEDondaine1939-127] Dondaine (1939).

[FOOTNOTEWakefieldEvans1991511–515-128] Wakefield & Evans (1991), 511–515쪽.

[129] See especially R.I. Moore's The Origins of European Dissent, and the collection of essays Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages: Essays on the Work of R.I. Moore for a consideration of the origins of the Cathars, and proof against identifying earlier heretics in the West, such as those identified in 1025 at Monforte, outside Milan, as being Cathars. Also see Heresies of the High Middle Ages, a collection of pertinent documents on Western heresies of the High Middle Ages, edited by Walter Wakefield and Austin P. Evans.

[Ladurie-130] 가 ^나 See Emmanuel LeRoy Ladurie's Montaillou: the Promised Land of Error for a respected analysis of the social context of these last French Cathars, and Power and Purity by Carol Lansing for a consideration of 13th-century Catharism in Orvieto.

[FOOTNOTEChesterton1910[httpbooksgooglecoukbooksidISoqqNkuUCYCpgPA2dqChestertonGK28191029What27sWrongwiththeWorldhlensaXeiHSumUcDfIPPP0AWdlYDwCAved0CDQQ6AEwAAvonepageqAlbigensesffalse_30]-131] Chesterton (1910), 30쪽.

[FOOTNOTEWakefieldEvans1991136-132] Wakefield & Evans (1991), 136쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea200042-133] 가 ^나 ^다 O'Shea (2000), 42쪽.

[FOOTNOTEJohnston2000252-134] 가 ^나 ^다 ^라 ^마 ^바 Johnston (2000), 252쪽.

[135] Murray, Alexander. 《Suicide in the Middle Ages》. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0‐19‐820539‐2 |isbn= 값 확인 필요: invalid character (도움말).

[FOOTNOTEBarber2000103–104-136] Barber (2000), 103–104쪽.

[FOOTNOTEBurr1996-137] 가 ^나 Burr (1996).

[138] 〈Cathari〉, 《Columbia Encyclopedia》, Columbia University Press, 2007 .

[139] 〈Albigensians〉, 《Encyclopaedia 2》, The Free dictionary

[FOOTNOTELambert199841-140] Lambert (1998), 41쪽: "Bernard's biographer identifies another group in Toulouse which he calls Arians, who have sometimes been identified as Cathars but the evidence is scant. It is most likely that the first Cathars to penetrate Languedoc appealed..."

[FOOTNOTELuscombeRiley-Smith2004522-141] Luscombe & Riley-Smith (2004), 522쪽: "Even though his biographer does not describe their beliefs, Arians would have been an appropriate label for moderate dualists with an unorthodox Christology, and the term was certainly later used in Languedoc to describe Cathars."

[FOOTNOTEJohnston2011115-142] Johnston (2011), 115쪽: "However, they became converts to Arian Christianity, which later developed into Catharism. Arian and Cathar doctrines were sufficiently different from Catholic doctrine that the two branches were incompatible."

[FOOTNOTEKienzle200192-143] Kienzle (2001), 92쪽: "The term ‘Arian' is often joined with ’Manichean' to designate Cathars. Geoffrey's comment implies that he and others called those heretics ’weavers', whereas they called themselves ’Arians'. Moreover, the Arians, who could have been...."

[FOOTNOTETownsend20089-144] Townsend (2008), 9쪽: "The Cathars did not accept the Church doctrine of Jesus being the 'Son of God'. They believed that Jesus was not embodied in the human form but an angel (Docetic Christology), which echoed back to the Arian controversy."

[FOOTNOTEMaseko2008482-145] Maseko (2008), 482쪽: "In the book 'Massacre at Montsegur' (a book widely regarded by medievalists as having a pronounced, pro-Cathar bias) the Cathars are referred to as 'Western Buddhists' because of their belief that the Doctrine of 'resurrection' taught."

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea200011-146] O'Shea (2000), 11쪽.

[147] The Gnostic Bible, Google Books.

[FOOTNOTEWeber1908b-148] Weber (1908b).

[FOOTNOTESumption199949–50-149] 가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 49–50쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea2000pp2-4-150] O'Shea, 2000 & pp2-4.

[FOOTNOTELambert199870-151] Lambert (1998), 70쪽.

[FOOTNOTELambert2002140-152] Lambert (2002), 140쪽.

[FOOTNOTEMoore1995137-153] Moore (1995), 137쪽.

[FOOTNOTEWard2002241–42-154] 가 ^나 Ward (2002), 241–42쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea200010–12-155] 가 ^나 O'Shea (2000), 10–12쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea200025–26-156] O'Shea (2000), 25–26쪽.

[FOOTNOTEClark2001412-157] Clark (2001), 412쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea200080–81-158] O'Shea (2000), 80–81쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea200040–43-159] O'Shea (2000), 40–43쪽.

[FOOTNOTEKaelber1997120-160] Kaelber (1997), 120쪽.

[FOOTNOTENewman1998753–755-161] Newman (1998), 753–755쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea200041-162] 가 ^나 O'Shea (2000), 41쪽.

[FOOTNOTEWeis2001122-163] Weis (2001), 122쪽.

[FOOTNOTEWalther1965167-164] Walther (1965), 167쪽.

[FOOTNOTEJohnson1976251-165] Johnson 1976, 251쪽.

[FOOTNOTESumption199968–69-166] Sumption (1999), 68–69쪽.

[FOOTNOTESumption199972-73-167] Sumption, 1999 & 72-73.

[168] Heisterbach, Caesarius (1851), Strange, J, 편집., 《Caesarius Heiserbacencis monachi ordinis Cisterciensis, Dialogus miraculorum》 2, Cologne: JM Heberle, 296–8쪽, Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eis . Caesarius (c) was a Cistercian Master of Novices.

[FOOTNOTEMoore2003180-169] Moore (2003), 180쪽. Note: Another Cistercian writing a few years after the events makes no mention of this remark while Caesar of Heisterbach wrote forty years later, however both are consistent with Arnaud's report to Pope Innocent III about the massacre.

[FOOTNOTEJohnson1976252-170] Johnson (1976), 252쪽.

[FOOTNOTEInnocent_III1855Vol._216-171] Innocent III (1855), Vol. 216.

[FOOTNOTESiblySibly2003128-172] Sibly & Sibly (2003), 128쪽.

[173] Chanson de la Croisade Albigeoise laisse 205.

[FOOTNOTESumption1999179–81-174] Sumption (1999), 179–81쪽.

[FOOTNOTESumption1999230–232-175] 가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 230–232쪽.

[FOOTNOTEMartin2005105–121-176] Martin (2005), 105–121쪽.

[FOOTNOTESumption1999238–40-177] 가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 238–40쪽.

[178] Innocent IV (1252), 《Ad extirpanda》 (Bull) .

[FOOTNOTEWeis200111–12-179] Weis (2001), 11–12쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea2000237–38-180] O'Shea (2000), 237–38쪽.

[FOOTNOTESumption1999242–43-181] 가 ^나 Sumption (1999), 242–43쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea2000239–46-182] O'Shea (2000), 239–46쪽.

[FOOTNOTEO'Shea2000230-183] O'Shea (2000), 230쪽.

[184] Pays Cathare

[FOOTNOTELambert1998-185] Lambert (1998).

[FOOTNOTEBarber2000-186] Barber (2000).

[187] L'Agonie du Languedoc: Claude Marti / Studio der frühen Musik – Thomas Binkley, dir. EMI "Reflexe" 1C 063-30 132 [LP-Stereo]1975

[188] La Nef. Montségur: La tragédie cathare. Dorian Recordings.DOR-90243

[189] Savall The Forgotten Kingdom: The Cathar Tragedy – The Albigensian Crusade AVSA9873 A+C Alia Vox 2009

[190] The name is variously written; Καϊνοί (Hippol. Ref. viii. 20; Theodoret, Haer. Fab. i. 15); Caini (Praedest. Cod.); Καϊανισταί (Clem. Alex. Strom. vii. 17), Καϊανοί (Epiphanius, Haer. 38; Origen, contra Celsum, iii. 13, but his translator Gelenius gives Cainani); Caiani (Philast. 2; Augustin. Haer. 18, Praedest. 18, codd.); Gaiana haeresis (Tertullian de Praescrip. 33, and de Bapt. 1), but Jerome writing with a clear reference to the latter passage of Tertullian has Caina (Ep. 83, ad Oceanum, and contra Vigilantium). Elsewhere he seems to have Cainaei (Dial. adv. Lucifer. 33); but many MSS. here have Chaldaei. So also Cainaei (Pseudo-Tertullian, 7), Cainiani (Praedest. Codd.). Irenaeus (i. 31) describes the doctrines of the sect, but gives them no title.

[191] Homer, Iliad 2.546–551.

[Nonnus,_Dionysiaca,_14._44-192] 가 ^나 Nonnus, Dionysiaca, 14. 44

[193] Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5.56; Pindar, Odes Olympian 7.3

[194] Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5.57.2

[195] Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5.57.6

[196] Pindar, Odes Olympian 7.3 sqq

[197] Chaucer's Eolus (de Weever, Jacqueline (1996). Chaucer Name Dictionary, s.v. "Eolus". (Garland Publishing) Retrieved on 2009-10-06

[dgrbm-198] 가 ^나 Schmitz, Leonhard (1864), 〈Aeolus (1), (2) and (3)〉, Smith, William, 《Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology》 1, 35쪽

[199] Smith, William. “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology”. The Ancient Library. 2013년 3월 14일에 확인함.

[200] Bibliotheca i. 7. §3; Scholium on Pindar's Pythian Ode iv. 190. In the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women (fr. 10(a)), his children are: Cretheus, Athamas, Sisyphus, Salmoneus, Deioneus, Perieres, Peisidice, Alcyone, Calyce, Canace and Perimede; one other son's name, perhaps Magnes, is lost in a lacuna.

[201] Apollodorus i. 7. ~ 3)

[202] Hyginus. Fabulae, 238, 242.

[203] Ovid. Heroides, 11.

[204] Pseudo-Plutarch. Parallel Lives, 28

[205] Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4. 67. 3 (trans. Oldfather)

[206] Homer, Odyssey x, 2

[207] Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 4. 7. 6 - 8. 3

[208] Scholia on Odyssey, 10. 6

[209] Love Romances, 2

[210] Virgil, Aeneid i. 71-75

[211] 《Pubblicazioni dell'Istituto universitario orientale di Napoli》 59. 1999 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=O9xiAAAAMAAJ&q=apkallu+dilmun&dq=apkallu+dilmun. 2011년 12월 12일에 확인함. |제목=이(가) 없거나 비었음 (도움말)

[212] “Iconography of Deities and Demons in the Ancient Near East” (PDF). University of Zurich. 2011년 12월 12일에 확인함.

[gale-213] 가 ^나 Jones, Lindsay, ed. in chief (2005). 《Encyclopedia of religion vol. 9》 2판. Detroit: Thomson Gale. 5964쪽. ISBN 0-02-865742-X. CS1 관리 - 추가 문구 (링크)

[214] “The Melammu Project: The Intellectual Heritage of Assyria and Babylonia in East and West”. 2011년 12월 12일에 확인함.

[dict-215] Leick, Gwendolyn (1998). 《A dictionary of ancient Near Eastern mythology》 [1. pbk.].판. London: Routledge. 151쪽. ISBN 978-0-415-19811-0.

[eden-216] Mettinger, Tryggve N.D. (2007). 《The Eden narrative : a literary and religio-historical study of Genesis 2-3》. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. 103쪽. ISBN 978-1-57506-141-2.

[bottero-217] Bottéro, Jean (1995). 《Writing, reasoning, and the Gods》 Paperback판. Chicago [u.a.]: Univ. of Chicago Press. 247쪽. ISBN 978-0-226-06727-8. CS1 관리 - 추가 문구 (링크)

[prescpectives-218] 가 ^나 Conrad, edited by Edgar W.; Newing, Edward G. (1987). 《Perspectives on language and text : essays and poems in honor of Francis I. Andersen's sixtieth birthday, July 28, 1985》. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. 39쪽. ISBN 978-0-931464-26-3.

[219] Clifford, edited by Richard J. (2007). 《Wisdom literature in Mesopotamia and Israel》 [Online-Ausg.]판. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. 25쪽. ISBN 978-1-58983-219-0.

[220] Hess, ed. by Richard S. (1994). 《"I studied inscriptions from before the flood" : ancient Near Eastern, literary, and linguistic approaches to Genesis 1-11》. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. 64쪽. ISBN 978-0-931464-88-1.

[221] , Lindsay Jones, ed. in (2005). 《Encyclopedia of religion vol. 4》 2판. Detroit: Thomson Gale. 2803쪽. ISBN 0-02-865737-3. CS1 관리 - 추가 문구 (링크)

[222] Ataç, Mehmet-Ali (2010). 《The mythology of kingship in Neo-Assyrian art》 1. publ.판. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 150쪽. ISBN 978-0-521-51790-4.

[224] “septentrional”. 《Oxford English Dictionary online》. Second edition, 1989; online version March 2012. March 28, 2012에 확인함.

[225] Hooke, Robert. 1666. Volume 1. Philosophical Transactions.

[226] According to Bereshit Rabbah, p.56, she was the wife of Noah, the son of the other Lamech.[6]

[Driver_Briggs_Hebrew_Lexicon'_p.658-227] 가 ^나 Brown Driver Briggs Hebrew Lexicon p.658; Strongs H5307

[228] Girdlestone R. Old Testament Synonyms p54

[229] Hendel R. ed. Auffarth Christoph; Loren T. Stuckenbruck The fall of the angels Brill (22 Feb 2004) ISBN 978-90-04-12668-8 p.21, 34

[230] Marks, Herbert "Biblical Naming and Poetic Etymology" Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 114, No. 1 (Spring, 1995), pp. 21–42

[231] Brown Driver Briggs Hebrew Lexicon p.658

[232] Van Ruiten, Jacques (2000). 《Primaeval History Interpreted: The Rewriting of Genesis I-II in the Book of Jubilees》. Brill. 189쪽. ISBN 9789004116580.

[Wright80-81-233] 가 ^나 Wright, Archie T. (2005). 《The Origin of Evil Spirits: The Reception of Genesis 6.1-4 in Early Jewish Literature》. Mohr Siebeck. 80–81쪽. ISBN 9783161486562.

[234] The Greek text reads 'οι βιαιοι; the singular root βιαιος means "violence" or "forcible" (Liddell & Scott. Greek-English Lexicon, 1883.)

[Stackhouse-235] 가 ^나 Stackhouse, Thomas (1869). 《A History of the Holy Bible》. Blackie & Son. 53쪽.

[236] Salvesen, Alison (1998). 〈Symmachus Readings in the Pentateuch〉. 《Origen's Hexapla and Fragments: Papers Presented at the Rich Seminar on the Hexapla, Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies, [July] 25th-3rd August 1994》. Mohr Siebeck. 190쪽. ISBN 9783161465758. The rendering "he fell upon, attacked" [in Symmachus, Genesis 6:6] is something of a puzzle...If it has been faithfully recorded, it may be related to the rendering of Aquila for the Nephilim in 6:4, οι επιπιπτοντες.

[237] Richard Hess, article "Nephilim" in Freedman, David Noel, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, (New York: Doubleday) 1997, 1992.

[238] P. W. Coxon, article "Nephilim" in K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst, "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible", p.619

[239] G. Milton Smith Knowing God in His Word—Genesis 2005 Page 140 "The other view holds that the sons of God were fallen angels who had some sort of union with the women of Noah's"

[240] raphically dated by Milik as c150BC see Michael E. Stone Selected studies in pseudepigrapha and apocrypha 1991 p248

[241] ther stolen or purchased from street vendors by the British in the reign of Tewodros

[242] re: R.H. Charles 1 Enoch 7:2 "And when the angels, (3) the sons of heaven, beheld them, they became enamoured of them, saying to each other,Come, let us select for ourselves wives from the progeny of men, and let us beget children. Ethiopian Orthodox Bible Henok 2:1–3 "and the Offspring of Seth, who were upon the Holy Mount, saw them and loved them. And they told one another, "Come, let us choose for us daughters from Cain's children; let us bear children for us."

[243] New American Bible, footnotes page 1370, referring to verse 6.
The angels too, who did not keep to their own domain but deserted their proper dwelling, he has kept in eternal chains, in gloom, for the judgement of the great day. Likewise, Sodom and Gomorrah, and the surrounding towns, which, in the same manner as they, indulged in sexual promiscuity and practiced unnatural vice, serve as an example by undergoing a punishment of eternal fire.
— Jude 1:6–7, New American Bible.

[244] 
The author does not present this episode as a myth nor, on the other hand, does he deliver judgment on its actual occurrence; he records the anecdote of a superhuman race simply to serve as an example of the increase in human wickedness which was to provoke the Flood.
— Jerusalem Bible, Genesis VI, footnote.

[245] Who are the sons of God and the Nephilim?

[246] ttp://kenraggio.com/KR-Giants-And-Angels-Breeding.html

[247] “Matthew 22:30”. BibleGateway.com, from the New American Standard Bible translation.

[248] Bob Deffinbaugh, Genesis: From Paradise to Patriarchs, The Sons of God and the Daughters of Men

[249] Swete, Henry Barclay (1901). 《The Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint (Volume 1)》. Cambridge University Press. 9쪽. Greek text: 'οι αγγελοι του θεου

[250] “Book 1: Watchers”. Academy for Ancient Texts, Timothy R. Carnahan. 2012년 8월 14일에 확인함.

[251] R. H. Charles A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St John p239 "He may be Uriel, if it is legitimate to compare 1 Enoch xx. 2, according to which he was the angel set over the world and Tartarus (ὁ ἐπὶ τοῦ κόσμου καὶ τοῦ Ταρτάρου). In 1 Enoch, Tartarus is the nether world generally,"

[252] Archie T. Wright The origin of evil spirits: the reception of Genesis 6.1–4 6:1–4 in Early Jewish Literature. 2005 Page 82 "Targum Neofiti's rendition of nephilim follows that of Onkelos ... Targum Pseudo-Jonathan interprets the Genesis 6.4 passage with significant changes, which indicate a strong negative"

[253] "1.9 In 'He comes with ten thousands of His holy ones' the text reproduces the Massoretic of Deut. 33² in reading אָתָא = ἔρχεται, whereas the three Targums, the Syriac and Vulgate read אִתֹּה = μετ' αὐτοῦ. Here the LXX diverges wholly. The reading אתא is recognised as original. The writer of 1–5 therefore used the Hebrew text and presumably wrote in Hebrew." R.H.Charles, Book of Enoch: Together with a Reprint of the Greek Fragments London 1912, p.lviii

[254] "We may note especially that 1:1, 3–4, 9 allude unmistakably to Deuteronomy 33:1–2 (along with other passages in the Hebrew Bible), implying that the author, like some other Jewish writers, read Deuteronomy 33–34, the last words of Moses in the Torah, as prophecy of the future history of Israel, and 33:2 as referring to the eschatological theophany of God as judge." Richard Bauckham, The Jewish world around the New Testament: collected essays. 1999 p276

[255] "The introduction.. picks up various biblical passages and re-interprets them, applying them to Enoch. Two passages are central to it The first is Deuteronomy 33:1 .. the second is Numbers 24:3–4 Michael E. Stone Selected studies in pseudepigrapha and apocrypha with special reference to the Armenian Tradition (Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha No 9) p.422.

[256] .g. Michael Green The second epistle general of Peter, and the general epistle of Jude p59

[257] James L. Kugel Traditions of the Bible: A Guide to the Bible As It Was at the Start of the Common Era (9780674791510)

[258] "The Nephilim were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of the nobles would come to the daughters of man, and they would bear for them; they are the mighty men, who were of old, the men of renown."—Genesis 6:4 (chabad.org translation)

[259] 
Later Judaism and almost all the earliest ecclesiastical writers identify the "sons of God" with the fallen angels; but from the fourth century onwards, as the idea of angelic natures becomes less material, the Fathers commonly take the "sons of God" to be Seth's descendants and the "daughters of men" those of Cain.
— Jerusalem Bible, Genesis VI, footnote.

[260] Kitab al-Magall

[261] Julius Africanus at CCEL

[262] Commentary in Genesis 6:3

[263] Rick Wade, Answering Email, The Nephilim

[264] “Matthew 24:38”. BibleGateway.com, from the New American Standard Bible translation.

[265] Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Sunday Schools Department: The "Holy Angels" (in Amharic)

[266] The Amharic text of Henok 2:1–3 (i.e. 1 En) in the 1962 Ethiopian Orthodox Bible may be translated as follows: "After mankind abounded, it became thus: And in that season, handsome comely children were born to them; and the Offspring of Seth, who were upon the Holy Mount, saw them and loved them. And they told one another, "Come,let us choose for us daughters from Cain's children; let us bear children for us."

[267] .g. Peake's commentary on the Bible 1919

[268] J. C. Greenfield, Article Apkallu in K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst, "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible", pp.72–4

[269] J. C. Greenfield, Article Apkallu in K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst, "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible", pp.73

[270] W. Zimmerli, Ezekiel vl.2 Translated J. D. Martin; Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983 p168, 176

[271] RS Hendel, Of Demigods and the Deluge: Towards an Interpretation of Genesis 6:1–4, JBL 106 (1987) p22

[272] K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst, "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible", p.619

[273] Rigal, Laura (2001). 《American Manufactory: Art, Labor, and the World of Things in the Early Republic》. Princeton University Press. 91쪽. ISBN 9780691089515.

[274] Rose, Mark (November/December 2005). “When Giants Roamed the Earth”. 《Archaeology》 58 (6). 01.04.2013에 확인함.

[275] [7]

[276] [8]

[277] Lexicon Results for Cham (Strong's 02526)

[278] Lexicon Results for Shem (Strong's 08035)

[279] Lexicon Results for Yepheth (Strong's 03315)

[280] David Moshman (2005). 〈Theories of Self and Theories as Selves〉. Cynthia Lightfoot, Michael Chandler and Chris Lalonde. 《Changing Conceptions of Psychological Life》. Psychology Press. 186쪽. ISBN 978-0805843361.

[mungello179-281] 가 ^나 ^다 ^라 Mungello, David E. (1989). 《Curious land: Jesuit accommodation and the origins of Sinology》. University of Hawaii Press. 179, 336–337쪽. ISBN 0-8248-1219-0. there are more references in that book on the early Jesuits' and others' opinions on Noah's Connection to China

[282] .g. Jubilees 9:4; 11:1-7 Book of Jubilees at Wesley Center

[283] Millard, Alan R. Biblical Archaeology Review May/June 2001: Where Was Abraham's Ur?

[284] Year-Names for Naram-Sin

[285] .g. Book of Jubilees, Biblical Antiquities of Philo, Kitab al-Magall, Flavius Josephus (I.VI.4).

[286] 틀:StrongHebrew

[287] Rene Noorbergen (2001). 《Secrets of the Lost Races: New Discoveries of Advanced Technology in Ancient Civilizations》. TEACH Services, Inc. ISBN 1-57258-198-0.

[288] Roswell Dwight Hitchcock, Nathaniel West, Alexander Cruden (1870). 《Hitchcock's New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible》. A.J. Johnson. ISBN 0-8370-1742-4. CS1 관리 - 여러 이름 (링크)

[289] 〈Almodad〉. 《International Standard Bible Encyclopedia》. 1915.

[290] Thomas Inman (2002). 〈Almodad〉. 《Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names Part 1》. Kessinger Publishing. 231쪽. ISBN 0-7661-2668-4.

[291] Alfred J. Kolatch (2005). 〈Almodad〉. 《The Comprehensive Dictionary of English & Hebrew First Names》. Jonathan David Company. p39쪽. ISBN 0-8246-0455-5. CS1 관리 - 추가 문구 (링크)

[292] David K. Stabnow (2006). 〈Almodad〉. 《HCSB Super Giant Print Dictionary and Concordance》. Broadman & Holman. 47쪽. ISBN 0-8054-9489-8.

[293] Antiquities of the Jews – Book I

[294] Die Chronik des Hippolytus

[295] Etymologies of Isidore, English translation

[296] This was observed as early as 1734, in George Sale's Commentary on the Quran.

[297] Seth in Jewish, Christian, and Gnostic Literature, Albertus Frederik Johannes Klijn, Volume 46 of Novum Testamentum. Supplements, BRILL, 1977, p. 54

[298] S.P. Brock notes that the earliest Greek texts of Pseudo-Methodius read Moneton, while the Syriac versions have Ionţon (Armenian Apocrypha, p. 117)

[299] Travels of Noah into Europe

[Islam2008-300] Islam, Misbah (2008년 6월 30일). 《Decline of Muslim States and Societies》. Xlibris Corporation. 333쪽. ISBN 978-1-4363-1012-3. 2013년 1월 16일에 확인함.

[301] “Order Of Zolfaghar”. Iran Collection. 2013년 1월 16일에 확인함.

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v t e Adam to David according to the Hebrew Bible
Creation to Flood	Adam Seth Enos Kenan Mahalalel Jared Enoch Methuselah Lamech Noah Shem
Cain line	Adam Cain Enoch Irad Mehujael Methusael Lamech Tubal-cain
Patriarchs after Flood	Arpachshad Shelah Eber Peleg Reu Serug Nahor Terah Abraham Isaac Jacob
Nationhood to Kingship	Judah Perez Hezron Ram Amminadab Nahshon Salmon Boaz Obed Jesse David

v t e Descendants of Noah in Genesis 10
Shem and Semitic	Elam Ashur Arpachshad Lud Aram
Ham and Hamitic	Cush Mizraim Phut Canaan
Japheth and Japhetic	Gomer Magog Madai Javan Tubal Meshech Tiras

v t e Adam to David according to the Hebrew Bible
Creation to Flood	Adam Seth Enos Kenan Mahalalel Jared Enoch Methuselah Lamech Noah Shem
Cain line	Adam Cain Enoch Irad Mehujael Methusael Lamech Tubal-cain
Patriarchs after Flood	Arpachshad Shelah Eber Peleg Reu Serug Nahor Terah Abraham Isaac Jacob
Nationhood to Kingship	Judah Perez Hezron Ram Amminadab Nahshon Salmon Boaz Obed Jesse David

v t e Descendants of Noah in Genesis 10
Shem and Semitic	Elam Ashur Arpachshad Lud Aram
Ham and Hamitic	Cush Mizraim Phut Canaan
Japheth and Japhetic	Gomer Magog Madai Javan Tubal Meshech Tiras