사용자:Shyoon1/작업장5

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
Western-Han miniature pottery infantry (foreground) and cavalry (background); in 1990, when the tomb complex of Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141 BC) and his wife Empress Wang Zhi (d. 126 BC) was excavated north of Yangling, over 40,000 miniature pottery figures were unearthed. All of them were one-third life size, smaller than the 8,000-some fully life size soldiers of the Terracotta Army buried alongside the First Emperor of Qin. Smaller miniature figurines, on average 60 centimeters (24 in) in height, have also been found in various royal Han tombs where they were placed to guard the deceased tomb occupants in their afterlife.[1]

한나라의 황제는 중국의 두 번째 황조(皇朝)인 한나라 (기원전 202 ~ 서기 220)의 최고 통치자이자 조정의 핵심이었다. ent during the second imperial dynasty of China; the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) followed the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and preceded the Three Kingdoms (220–265 AD). The era is conventionally divided between the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and Eastern Han (25–220 AD) periods.

한나라는 패현의 정장 출신인 유방이 건국하였고 그는 뒷날 고제(r. 202 –195 BC) 또는 흔히 고조로도 불리고 있다. 한나라가 존속할 동안 가장 오랫동안 황제로서 재위한 이는 54년간 옥좌에 앉아있었던 제7대 황제 무제(r. 141–87 BC)이다. 한 황조는 이후 서기 8년에 신나라가 건국되면서 잠시 그 운이 끊어지나, 25년, 전한의 황족 출신인 유수가 신나라를 몰아내고 한나라를 재건한다. 유수는 뒷날 광무제(r. 25–57 AD)로도 잘 알려져 있다.[2] The last Han emperor, Emperor Xian (r. 189–220 AD), was a puppet monarch of Chancellor Cao Cao (155–220 AD), who dominated the court and was made King of Wei.[3] In 220 AD, Cao's son Pi usurped the throne as Emperor Wen of Wei (r. 220–226 AD) and ended the Han dynasty.

The emperor was the supreme head of government.[4] He appointed all of the highest-ranking officials in central, provincial, commandery, and county administrations.[5] He also functioned as a lawgiver, the highest court judge, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and high priest of the state-sponsored religious cults.[6]

Naming conventions[편집]

Emperor[편집]

Emperor Guangwu of Han (r. 25–57 AD), as depicted by the Tang artist Yan Liben (600–673 AD)
A gilded bronze handle (with traces of red pigment) in the shape of a dragon's head, made during the Eastern Han; depending on circumstance, the dragon could be a symbol of either good or bad omen for the Han emperors.[7]

In ancient China, the rulers of the Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC) and Zhou (c. 1050 – 256 BC) dynasties were referred to as kings (王 wang).[8] By the time of the Zhou dynasty, they were also referred to as Sons of Heaven (天子 Tianzi).[8] By 221 BC, the King of Qin, Ying Zheng, conquered and united all the Warring States of ancient China. To elevate himself above the Shang and Zhou kings of old, he accepted the new title of emperor (皇帝 huangdi) and is known to posterity as the First Emperor of Qin (Qin Shi Huang). The new title of emperor was created by combining the titles for the Three Sovereigns (Sanhuang) and Five Emperors (Wudi) from Chinese mythology.[9] This title was used by each successive ruler of China until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911.[10]

Posthumous, temple, and era names[편집]

From the Shang to Sui (581–618 AD) dynasties, Chinese rulers (both kings and emperors) were referred to by their posthumous names in records and historical texts.[10] Temple names, first used during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141 BC), were used exclusively in later records and historical texts when referring to emperors who reigned during the Tang (618–907 AD), Song (960–1279 AD), and Yuan (1271–1368 AD) dynasties.[10] During the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing (1644–1911 AD) dynasties, a single era name was used for each emperor's reign and became the preferred way to refer to Ming and Qing emperors in historical texts.[11]

Use of the era name was formally adopted during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC), yet its origins can be traced back further. The oldest method of recording years—which had existed since the Shang—set the first year of a ruler's reign as year one.[12] When an emperor died, the first year of a new reign period would begin.[13] This system was changed by the 4th century BC when the first year of a new reign period did not begin until the first day of the lunar New Year following a ruler's death.[14] When Duke Huiwen of Qin assumed the title of king in 324 BC, he changed the year count of his reign back to the first year.[14] For his newly adopted calendar established in 163 BC, Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157 BC) also set the year count of his reign back to the beginning.[15]

Since six was considered a lucky number, Han Emperors Jing and Wu changed the year count of their reigns back to the beginning every six years.[15] Since every six-year period was successively marked as yuannian (元年), eryuan (二元), sanyuan (三元), and so forth, this system was considered too cumbersome by the time it reached the fifth cycle wuyuan sannian (五元三年) in 114 BC.[16] In that year a government official suggested that the Han court retrospectively rename every "beginning" with new characters, a reform Emperor Wu accepted in 110 BC.[17] Since Emperor Wu had just performed the religious feng (封) sacrifice at Mount Taishan, he named the new era yuanfeng (元封). This event is regarded as the formal establishment of era names in Chinese history.[18] Emperor Wu changed the era name once more when he established the 'Great Beginning' (太初 Taichu) calendar in 104 BC.[19] From this point until the end of Western Han, the court established a new era name every four years of an emperor's reign. By Eastern Han there was no set interval for establishing new era names, which were often introduced for political reasons and celebrating auspicious events.[19]

Regents and empress dowagers[편집]

The story of Jin Midi. Wu Liang Shrine, Jiaxiang, Shandong province, China, 2nd century AD; an ink rubbing of an Eastern-Han stone-carved relief

At times, especially when an infant emperor was placed on the throne, a regent, often the empress dowager or one of her male relatives, would assume the duties of the emperor until he reached his majority. Sometimes the empress dowager's faction—the consort clan—was overthrown in a coup d'état. For example, Empress Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC) was the de facto ruler of the court during the reigns of the child emperors Qianshao (r. 188–184 BC) and Houshao (r. 184–180 BC).[20] Her faction was overthrown during the Lü Clan Disturbance of 180 BC and Liu Heng was named emperor (posthumously known as Emperor Wen).[21] Before Emperor Wu died in 87 BC, he had invested Huo Guang (d. 68 BC), Jin Midi (d. 86 BC), and Shangguan Jie (上官桀)(d. 80 BC) with the power to govern as regents over his successor Emperor Zhao of Han (r. 87–74 BC). Huo Guang and Shangguan Jie were both grandfathers to Empress Shangguan (d. 37 BC), wife of Emperor Zhao, while the ethnically-Xiongnu Jin Midi was a former slave who had worked in an imperial stable. After Jin died and Shangguan was executed for treason, Huo Guang was the sole ruling regent. Following his death, the Huo-family faction was overthrown by Emperor Xuan of Han (r. 74–49 BC), in revenge for Huo Guang poisoning his wife Empress Xu Pingjun (d. 71 BC) so that he could marry Huo's daughter Empress Huo Chengjun (d. 54 BC).[22]

Since regents and empress dowagers were not officially counted as emperors of the Han dynasty, they are excluded from the list of emperors below.

  1. ↑ Paludan (1998), 34–36.
  2. ↑ Hymes 2000, 36쪽.
  3. ↑ Beck (1986), 354-355.
  4. ↑ de Crespigny (2007), 1216; Bielenstein (1980), 143; Hucker (1975), 149–150.
  5. ↑ Wang (1949), 141–142.
  6. ↑ Wang (1949), 141–143; Ch'ü (1972), 71; Crespigny (2007), 1216-1217.
  7. ↑ de Visser (2003), 43–49.
  8. ↑ 가 나 Wilkinson (1998), 105.
  9. ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 105–106.
  10. ↑ 가 나 다 Wilkinson (1998), 106.
  11. ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 106–107.
  12. ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 176.
  13. ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 176–177.
  14. ↑ 가 나 Wilkinson (1998), 177.
  15. ↑ 가 나 Wilkinson (1998), 177; Sato (1991), 278.
  16. ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 177–178; Sato (1991), 278.
  17. ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 177–178; Sato (1991), 278–279.
  18. ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 178; Sato (1991), 278–279.
  19. ↑ 가 나 Wilkinson (1998), 178.
  20. ↑ Loewe (1986), 135; Hansen (2000), 115–116.
  21. ↑ Loewe (1986), 136–137; Torday (1997), 78.
  22. ↑ Loewe (1986), 174–187; Huang (1988), 44–46.
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